https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5751-7260
Figures
Abstract
Several molecular phylogenetic studies of the mistletoe family Loranthaceae have been published such that now the general pattern of relationships among the genera and their biogeographic histories are understood. Less is known about species relationships in the larger (> 10 species) genera. This study examines the taxonomically difficult genus Taxillus composed of 35–40 Asian species. The goal was to explore the genetic diversity present in Taxillus plastomes, locate genetically variable hotspots, and test these for their utility as potential DNA barcodes. Using genome skimming, complete plastomes, as well as nuclear and mitochondrial rDNA sequences, were newly generated for eight species. The plastome sequences were used in conjunction with seven publicly available Taxillus sequences and three sequences of Scurrula, a close generic relative. The Taxillus plastomes ranged from 121 to 123 kbp and encoded 90–93 plastid genes. In addition to all of the NADH dehydrogenase complex genes, four ribosomal genes, infA and four intron-containing tRNA genes were lost or pseudogenized in all of the Taxillus and Scurrula plastomes. The topologies of the plastome, mitochondrial rDNA and nuclear rDNA trees were generally congruent, though with discordance at the position of T. chinensis. Several variable regions in the plastomes were identified that have sufficient numbers of parsimony informative sites as to recover the major clades seen in the complete plastome tree. Instead of generating complete plastome sequences, our study showed that accD alone or the concatenation of accD and rbcL can be used in future studies to facilitate identification of Taxillus samples and to generate a molecular phylogeny with robust sampling within the genus.
Citation: Su H-J, Liang S-l, Nickrent DL (2021) Plastome variation and phylogeny of Taxillus (Loranthaceae). PLoS ONE 16(8): e0256345. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345
Editor: Tzen-Yuh Chiang, National Cheng Kung University, TAIWAN
Received: February 15, 2021; Accepted: August 5, 2021; Published: August 18, 2021
Copyright: © 2021 Su et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files.
Funding: This study was funded by MOST grants (106-2311-B-845-001-MY3 and 109-2311–B-845-001) from Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan to HJS.
Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.
Introduction
The family Loranthaceae is the largest in the sandalwood order Santalales with 76 genera and over 1000 species distributed worldwide [1]. Despite its ecological and ethnobotanical value, relatively little is known about species relationships within the larger genera. Nearly all genera have been represented as placeholder species in broad-scale phylogenetic work within Santalales and Loranthaceae [1–4], however, relatively few studies have examined interspecific relationships within a genus. Of the 76 Loranthaceae genera, 28 have 10 or more species [5]. Among these, very few published studies that included a robust sampling of species within the genus are of Tristerix [6], Loranthus [7] and Dendropemon [8]. For some genera, molecular phylogenies have been published but only for a subset of species, such as Psittacanthus [9, 10] and Taxillus [11].
Plastomes in angiosperms contain highly conserved as well as variable regions [12], therefore these genomes have been widely used to address phylogenetic questions at various taxonomic levels [13]. Whole plastome sequences were used to examine relationships among families of the sandalwood order [14], and the recovered topology was congruent with previous multigene analyses [1, 3]. Although complete plastome sequences can be used to address species relationships within a mistletoe genus (e.g. Loranthus), there is interest in identifying which plastome regions are most effective in resolving relationships at lower taxonomic levels. Sometimes referred to as DNA “barcodes”, these regions can be targeted to allow implementation of a rapid and cost-effective method to identify specimens to the rank of species [15, 16]. It then follows that such gene regions are also useful in generating species level phylogenies. Although genome skimming [17] can be used to generate complete plastomes (as reported herein), this method is more costly and cannot always be used with degraded DNA that might be present in herbarium specimens or forensic samples. The rationale proposed here is to use genome skimming for a subset of species within a genus, determine which regions are appropriately variable, and then use those regions in species level analyses with more robust sampling. In such studies, more cost effective and rapid PCR methods can be employed to generate sequences across a non-trivial number of samples that broadly span the species diversity. This “depth then breadth” approach would allow more rapid advancement toward achieving species-level phylogenies for many genera of Loranthaceae and other angiosperms.
The genus treated in the present study is Taxillus Tiegh. which comprises 35–40 mistletoe species that are mainly distributed in tropical and temperate Asia. Although some molecular phylogenetic analyses have been published for the genus [11, 18–20] all included five or fewer species because their main focus was to report complete chloroplast genome (plastome) sequences. Taxillus, along with its close generic relative Scurrula, are the only two genera of Tribe Lorantheae, Subtribe Scurrulinae [2, 21]. Recognition of their close relationship predates the molecular era [22–24] and indeed these authors expressed difficulty in distinguishing the two genera. Moreover, species relationships within the genera are unclear and no monograph exists for either. A list of 39 potentially good Taxillus species was compiled from information the Plant List (now World Flora Online, WFO) where 50 clear synonyms were removed, and six names listed as uncertain status (S1 Table). Both T. lonicerifolius (Hayata) S.T. Chiu and T. rhododendricola (Hayata) S.T. Chiu, were listed as synonyms of T. nigrans (Hance) Danser in Flora of China [25] and on WFO. In addition, T. matsudai (Hayata) Danser is considered a synonym of T. caloreas (Diels) Danser in these two works. These names were used in the Flora of Taiwan [26] and are here retained so that their relationships to the other species can be tested using molecular data.
Fifteen Taxillus species occur in mainland China, 7 in Taiwan, 14 in India, Sri Lanka, and/or Bangladesh, and three in Vietnam, Laos and/or Cambodia. One species (T. yadoriki) is known from Japan and the geographically most distant taxon is T. wiensii from Kenya. Both Danser (1931) and Barlow (1997) indicated that fruit features best distinguish Taxillus from Scurrula, where the latter has stipitate, obovoid or clavate fruits and the former has non-stipitate, ovoid or ellipsoid fruits. Features used in the Flora of China [25] that differentiate Chinese species include the presence or absence of pubescence on branches, leaves, calyx and corolla, the color and type of indumentum (e.g. tomentose vs. with stellate hairs), pedicel and corolla dimensions, typical vs. multilocellate anthers, and surface features of the fruit (granulose, verrucose, verruculose or scabrid). Problems with the branch indumentum and fruit surface features are that these characters are labile, often disappearing in mature structures. Another practical limitation is that fruits are not present on all herbarium specimens.
Of the ca. 39 potential species, complete plastome sequences from 15 were examined here, which included seven previously published and eight newly generated ones. Six of the endemic Taiwan species were sequenced and eight other species found in China and surrounding regions were also included. No sequences were obtained from Taxillus species from India. Because sampling is incomplete, the aim of this study was not to provide a definitive molecular phylogeny of Taxillus but to explore the genetic diversity present in the plastomes, locate genetically variable hotspots, and test these for their utility as potential barcodes. These selected candidate markers will be useful for sample identification and future studies aimed at resolving phylogenetic relationships among all species of Taxillus. The plastome phylogenies were further compared with the topologies inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial rDNA regions to assess subcellular genome congruence and screen for potential hybridization events.
Materials and methods
Ethics statement
Fresh T. pseudochinensis material were collected from Hengchun, Pintung, Taiwan with permission from Hengchun Tropical Botanic Garden, Taiwan. The collection of other Taxillus fresh materials were carried out in compliance with relevant laws of Taiwan. Herbarium samples were accessed with approval from the Herbarium of Taiwan Forestry Research Institute (TAIF) and Research Center for Biodiversity, Academia Sinica, Taipei (HAST). No endangered species were used in this study.
Sample collection, DNA extraction and sequencing
26 Taxillus samples belonging to nine species were collected and detailed voucher specimen information is shown in S2 Table. 21 of the samples were used for genome skimming. Total genomic DNA was extracted using the CTAB method [27] and sheared into fragments between 400 and 700 bp in size for library construction. Sequencing data were retrieved on a 300 bp paired-end Illumina Miseq platform at VYM Genome Research Center, Taiwan. In addition, paired-end genomic sequences of Scurrula chingii (SRX9233076), Taxillus chinensis (CNS0039580) and T. sutchuenensis (CNS0039577) were downloaded from publicly available databases and used in the analyses. Additional sequence data used in various phylogenetic analyses were retrieved from Genbank (S3 Table).
Acquisition of plastome, nuclear and mitochondria rDNA sequences
De novo assemblies of contigs were performed by the CLC Genomics Workbench software (v8.5.1, CLC Bio, Aarhus, Denmark). The adaptor sequences and low-quality bases of paired reads were removed before assembly using Trimmomatic (v0.39) [28]. Contigs containing plastid genes were selected and used for scaffold building. The plastid contigs were obtained by BLASTN searches against the plastomes of Nicotiana tabacum (NC_001879.2, e-value 1e-10) and Schoepfia jasminodora (NC_034228.1). About three plastid contigs were recovered from each of the sequenced samples and the orientation of the contigs was based on N. tabacum. The gaps between contigs were closed by iterative mapping of raw reads using BWA (v0.7.4) [29] and samtools [30]. The final assemblies were visually inspected by IGV [31] to ensure each plastome was fully covered by overlapping paired-end reads.
The preliminary annotations of complete plastomes were performed using GeSeq [32] using other land plant chloroplast genomes as reference. For intron-containing genes, the intron and exon boundaries were carefully examined by sequence comparisons with the sequences of N. tabacum. To explore the presence/absence of genes that were missing from the annotation, gene sequences of selected eudicot species were used as queries for BLASTN searches (e-value 1e-10). To verify the clpP pseudogenization event in the T. nigrans plastome (MH095982.1), RNA-seq data of T. nigrans (SRX2755388) was used and the clpP sequences were recovered in comparison to the respective nucleotide sequence [20].
In addition to the plastome sequences, the nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) cistron was constructed that included sequence spanning the small-subunit (SSU) to large-subunit (LSU) rDNA sequences, including the two internal transcribed spacers and 5.8S rDNA. Similarly, mitochondrial ribosomal DNA (mrDNA) sequences of the small- and large-subunit rDNA were obtained (these are not organized into a cistron). Both regions were obtained by using BLASTN (e-value 1e-10) searches against sequences of other eudicots. NCBI Genbank accession numbers of newly obtained sequences can be found in S2 Table.
Molecular phylogenetic analyses
Sequences of the full plastomes, the nrDNA cistron, and the mrDNA (concatenated SSU and LSU rDNA sequences) were aligned independently using MAFFT v7.222 [33]. The first plastome dataset containing 29 Taxillus sequences (13 species) as well as sequences for seven other Loranthaceae. Schoepfia jasminodora was included as outgroup based on previous studies [2, 3]. Sixty-three protein-coding genes (PCGs) and the four rRNA genes were collected and individually aligned using MUSCLE v3.8.31 [34]. This alignment was converted to aligned amino acids (codons) using PAL2NAL [35] and the concatenated alignment of PCGs and rRNA was used to infer a Maximum likelihood (ML) phylogeny. This and all subsequent ML phylogenetic trees were generated using RAxML v8.1.17 [36] with the GTRMMI model. One thousand rapid bootstrap replicates were used to evaluate support values of the ML trees. The second plastid dataset was constructed using 23 Taxillus full plastome sequences (11 species). The datasets of nrDNA and mrDNA were also constructed using the same sampling. The ML trees resulting from analyses of these alignments were used to compare topologies among the three subcellular compartment partitions using Scurrula chingii as outgroup. The Maximum parsimony (MP) analyses were conducted using the MPBoot software [37] with default parsimony ratchet search options and the bootstrap analyses included 1,000 bootstrap replicates using the same search options. Additional Taxillus from NCBI Genbank were not included because the nrDNA and mrDNA sequences were not available for all taxa.
In addition to sequences generated in this study, plastome sequences as well as sequences from the plastid intergenic spacers (IGS) trnF-trnL and trnH-psbA were included in another ML phylogenetic analysis (S3 Table). The sampling here included additional Taxillus, Scurrula and Helixanthera accessions [38–40] with the goal of testing monophyly of the species.
Morphological data
To investigate the taxonomic utility of morphological characters often used for identification of Taxillus, four characters were selected, and their character states plotted on the 67 gene ML phylogenetic tree. The four characters were leaf shape, the presence abaxial leaf hairs, the presence of corolla hairs, and fruit shape. These characters were chosen based on keys and descriptions published in regional floras [25, 26] as well as visual inspection of the plant samples used in this study.
Sequence variation, genetic distances and informative variables analyses
To assess the presence of divergent regions in the 29 Taxillus plastomes, the full MAFFT alignment and the sliding window analysis of nucleotide diversity was conducted using the software DnaSP v6 with a step size of 100 bp and window length of 500 bp [41]. To calculate infrageneric genetic distance of the plastome and the nrDNA sequences, pairwise Kimura 2‐parameter (K2P) distances between the sample pairs were obtained using MEGAX [42]. To evaluate sequence diversity of the various molecular regions in the Taxillus plastomes, 63 shared PCGs, four rRNA genes and seven intergenic spacers were analyzed to determine proportion of variable sites and the proportion of parsimony informative sites in these regions. Tests were also conducted to determine the phylogenetic utility of the seven variable intergenic spacers as well as five PCGs that are >1000 bp in length and have been proposed as potential barcodes. Each of the genetic regions was aligned using MAFFT and the diversity information was computed by the AMAS program [43]. The trees were generated using ML and bootstrap support was obtained using RaxML as described earlier. A simple phylogenetic utility test was also used to evaluate the trees using the baseline topology of the complete plastome ML tree as the standard for comparison. The monophyly of Taxillus clades I-IV contributed one point each, the monophyly of Scurrula one point, and the overall topology one point for a possible total of six points. Topological differences within clades were ignored for this analysis. Taxillus chinensis was not included because only one accession was used in some analyses (see below).
Development of Taxillus-specific barcodes
Five primer sets for three plastid regions (accD, matK and trnL-trnF) were identified and tested for PCR amplification efficiency. The specific primers were designed based on the 29 Taxillus plastome sequences (S4 Table). PCR amplifications were performed in 50 μl reactions that each contained 25 μl of 2×Taq Plus PCR MasterMix (Tiangen Biotech Co., Ltd.), 0.2 μM of forward and reverse primers, 22 μl sterile double distilled water (ddH2O) and 20–50 ng Taxillus genomic DNA. Negative controls used only ddH2O. The PCR conditions included a preheating at 94°C for 5 min, 35 cycles of 94°C for 30 s, annealing temperatures between 46 and 50°C for 50 s (see S4 Table), and elongation at 72°C for 55 s, followed by a final extension at 72°C for 5 min. Seven Taxillus species were tested and the amplicons (including negative controls) were visualized on 1.5% agarose gels. The PCR products of five additional Taxillus samples were purified and sequences were obtained from Sanger sequencing.
Results
General features of the Taxillus plastomes
The 21 complete plastomes of Taxillus assembled and reported here can be compared to the eight published plastome sequences of other Taxillus species and those of three species of Scurrula (S5 Table). Overall, the plastomes of Taxillus ranged in size from 121,305 bp (T. chinensis) to 123,074 bp (T. liquidambaricola) with GC contents ranging from 37.2 to 37.4%. Gene content and order of the 29 Taxillus plastomes are highly conserved, each containing a total of 90–93 unique and putative functional genes, including 61–63 PCGs, 4 rRNA and 25 or 26 tRNA genes. Compared to typical angiosperms plastomes that contain 113 unique genes, the Taxillus and Scurrula (as well as Helixanthera) plastomes have lost or contain pseudogenes for 11 NAD(P)H dehydrogenase (ndh) genes, four ribosomal protein genes (rps15, rps16, rpl16 and rpl32) and four intron-containing tRNA genes (trnK-UUU, trnG-UCC, trnV-UAC, trnI-GAU) (S5 Table and S1 Fig). Following the major gene losses that occurred along the branch leading to all these accessions of Loranthaceae, loss or pseudogenization has occurred independently in a few lineages (S1 Fig), such as the pseudogenization of trnA-UGC in T. matsudai and H. parasitica and the independent losses of infA in the Scurrula clade, T. nigrans and T. chinensis.
The boundaries between large single copy (LSC) region, small single copy (SSC) region, and inverted repeats (IRs) showed a nearly identical pattern in the 13 Taxillus and the three Scurrula plastomes (S2 Fig). The junction of LSC/IRb was located in the exon2 of rpl2 and the junction SSC/IRa was identified within ycf1. The junction of IRb/SSC was found within trnL-UAG and a short portion of the trnL-UAG overlapped with the duplicated ycf1 fragment. The junction of IRa/LSC was identified within the trnH-GUG gene, except in T. nigrans whose trnH-GUG was not detected in the plastome.
Plastome, mitochondrial and nuclear gene trees
The phylogeny based on the 67 shared plastid genes included samples of 13 Taxillus species as well as Scurrula and five other genera of Loranthaceae (Fig 1). A monophyletic Taxillus was strongly supported (BS = 100%) and that clade was sister to a clade consisting of the three Scurrula accessions (BS = 100%). The Taxillus phylogenetic tree contained five distinct clades, the first four of which were strongly supported (100 BS): the first clade included T. nigrans, T. pseudochinensis, T. rhododenricolus, T. sutchuenensis, T. tsaii, and T. vestitus while the second contained T. levinei, T. lonicerifolius and T. yadoriki. A third clade was sister to the first two and contained three accessions of T. liquidambaricola. The fourth clade was composed of T. theifer and T. matsudai. The fifth clade was composed of three accessions of Taxillus chinensis whose topology as sister to the remaining clades was poorly supported (53% MLBS).
This ML tree derives from analysis of the 67 gene sequence dataset (63 PCGs and four rRNAs). Only bootstrap values < 100% are labeled and Schoepfia jasminodora was used as the outgroup. Triangles at the branch tips represent multiple accessions of the same species and the number of accessions used is shown in parentheses. Four morphological characters and their states are shown to the right of the phylogenetic tree. The grey shading marks the five major clades of Taxillus (see text).
The four morphological characters and their states were plotted on the ML tree (Fig 1). Leaf shape was generally uniformative given that most Taxillus species were scored as ovate or elliptic. Although abaxial leaf hair presence showed some pattern across states for clades II-IV, clade I was polymorphic. Even less conformance to clade was seen for the presence of corolla hairs. Finally, fruit shape appears important in distinguishing Taxillus from Scurrula but has little value in differentiating Taxillus species. For both leaf and fruit shape, several autapomorphic states exist and, with the present sampling, contribute no cladistic information. Overall, these morphological features are insufficient to distinguish the five clades within Taxillus.
Trees resulting from ML and MP analyses of the mrDNA dataset were identical to the plastome tree in terms of topology of the five major clades; however, relationships among conspecific accessions of T. liquidambaricola and T. theifer differed slightly (S3 Fig). A comparison of the phylogenetic trees resulting from analyses of the plastome and the nrDNA cistron partitions is shown in Fig 2. The whole plastome tree is mostly congruent with the topology shown in Fig 1, differing only topology among accessions in Clade I. Although the nrDNA tree was less resolved than the plastome tree, clades I-III received strong bootstrap support (BS > 95%) and clade IV moderate support (87%). The plastome tree shows T. chinensis as sister to all the remaining Taxillus whereas in the nrDNA tree this taxon is sister to clades I-III, but with low support. The two topologies are similar in most respects, differing mainly in the interspecific relationships of clade I samples and the infraspecific relationships within the T. liquidambaricola and T. theifer clades.
A. ML tree derived from an analysis of the whole plastome dataset. This tree is generally congruent with the one obtained from mitochondrial rDNA sequences. The Maximum Likelihood Bootstrap values (MLBS) and Maximum Parsimony Bootstrap (MPBS) values are indicated above and below the branches, respectively. B. Tree inferred from the ML analysis of the nuclear rDNA sequences. MLBS and MPBS values are indicated above and below the branches, respectively.
Plastome nucleotide diversity and genetically informative regions
The nucleotide diversity values (π) for the 29 Taxillus plastome sequences (Fig 3) ranged from 0 to 0.0635 (rpoB-trnC) and the mean nucleotide diversity value was 0.0125, showing the sequences were generally conserved. Compared to the nucleotide diversity in the LSC and SSC regions, the two IR regions were the most conserved. The six most variable regions included five IGSs (rpoB-trnC, rps4-trnT, accD-psaI, rpl14-rps3, ccsA-psaC) and one PCG (ycf1). 67 plastid genes and seven IGS regions were arranged according to size and the proportion of parsimony informative sites and plotted on the same graph (Fig 4). Six of the seven IGS regions were less than 1000 bp in length yet all showed a high proportion of parsimony informative sites (8–25%). Although the PCGs were significantly longer, the proportion of parsimony informative sites was generally <5%.
Sequence diversity was calculated using a sliding window analysis (window size = 500 bp, step size = 100 bp). The six most variable regions are labeled.
Intergenic spacer regions (IGS), protein coding genes (PCG) and rrn genes (rRNA) are plotted by length (empty vertical bars, length from the sequence alignment) and proportion of parsimony informative sites (vertical filled bars).
The simple phylogenetic utility test results are presented for the IGSs and PCGs (Table 1 and S4 Fig). Trees generated from the seven IGS regions, including trnH-psbA that is commonly used as a barcode, show a range of topologies (S4 Fig). Among the IGSs, only the lengthy rpl14-rps3 region matched the overall plastome topology (score of 6) and the shortest region (trnH-psbA) received a score of zero. Three of the IGSs (rpl14-rps3, trnL-trnF and rps4-trnT) supported monophyly of clade IV. After rpl14-rps3 the next highest score (5) was trnL-trnF that did not recover the overall Taxillus topology. This IGS was examined further by including six additional sequences from NCBI Genbank (S5 Fig). A species not previously sampled, Taxillus thibetensis, emerged as part of clade I but weakly supported as sister to T. sutchuenensis. A major clade composed of clades I-III (but not IV) received high bootstrap support (87%) and all sequences of T. chinensis were strongly supported as monophyletic (100%). The taxon named T. wiensii from Kenya emerged outside the Taxillus/Scurrula clade (S5 Fig). As shown in S4 Fig, trnH-psbA performed poorly relative to other IGSs where species such as Taxillus chinensis, T. liquidambaricola, T. theifer and T. matsudai were resolved as monophyletic. For the PCGs, a score of five was obtained for all five genes, but only the accD topology received high nodal support for Clades I-IV (S4 Fig). This contrasts with rbcL where most nodes received weak support. As with four of the IGSs, matK did not yield a monophyletic clade IV and this was not corrected even when concatenated with rbcL or accD (S4 Fig). The highest score (6) among PCGs was obtained by concatenating rbcL with accD.
Genetic distances (K2P) among the plastome and nrDNA sequences of the 29 Taxillus and three Scurrula plastomes were compared (Fig 5). The intertaxon distances for their plastomes was about two-fold higher than those derived from nrDNA. The genetic distances between Taxillus and Scurrula plastomes ranged from 0.0200 to 0.0369, whereas the maximum distance within Taxillus (0.020) occurred between T. chinensis C to T. theifer F. For plastomes, the lowest K2P distance (near-zero) was detected within samples of the same species and among T. pseudochinensis, T. tsaii and T. rhododendricola A. Similary, for nrDNA sequences, K2P distances near zero were found among the same species samples as well as among T. tsaii, T. rhododendricola and T. pseudochinensis. The genetic distances among members of the same Taxillus clade were generally lower than 0.01.
The upper right portion of the matrix contains genetic distances calculated from the nuclear rDNA sequence while the lower left portion contains genetic distance computed from whole plastome sequences. All the analyses were performed using the Kimura 2-parameter (K2P) model.
The five specific primer sets for three genetic regions (accD, matK and trnL-trnF) successfully amplified their target fragments in all seven species. The fragments ranged from 562 bp to 750 bp in size and the results of agarose gel electrophoresis are shown in S6 Fig. The Sanger sequences for the five additional Taxillus samples were incorporated into their respective gene alignments and the resulting ML gene trees of 34 Taxillus and three Scurrula sequences are shown in S7 Fig. Conspecific Taxillus species were consistently placed together in the same clade and bootstrap values generally increased. However, only T. liquidambaricola, T. theifer, T. matsudai and T. chinensis were resolved as reciprocally monophyletic as opposed to Clade I and II species that were not.
Discussion
Plastome evolution in Taxillus
In the comparative analyses of Taxillus and Scurrula plastomes, we observed an overall high conservation in genome size, GC content, gene content, and IR/SC boundaries. The sizes of the Taxillus plastomes (121–123 kbp) are similar to Loranthus [7] and near the mean value for the entire family (122.3 kbp, range 116–139 kbp from 45 values). For the non-mistletoe members of Santalales (excluding holoparasites), plastomes range in size from 118.7 kbp (Schoepfia jasminodora) to 156.8 kbp (Ximenia americana) with a mean of 138.6 kbp. Reductions in plastome size across the order have been discussed [14, 44, 45] and it appears that this process is occurring independently in several clades through gene loss and pseudogenization. As proposed in several plastome degradation models [46, 47], the first stage is pseudogenization or loss of ndh complex genes and this appears to be the case with all parasitic lineages in Santalales [46]. With the exception of ndhB, all ndh genes appear to have been lost in the common ancestor of Loranthaceae and Schoepfiaceae [46] (S1 Fig). Within Loranthaceae, further reductions involve infA and tRNA genes. It should be noted that trnK-UUU, trnG-UCC, trnV-UAC, and trnI-GAU (all group IIA intron-containing tRNA genes) have been lost or pseudogenized, but the intron processing gene matK remains present in these plastomes (S1 Fig), suggesting a gradual loss of intron-containing tRNA genes prior the loss of matK during plastome reduction. The complete loss of matK in Santalales has not been documented, however, its pseudogene is present in Viscum [48] (Viscaceae) and Cecarria [7] (Loranthaceae). The gene contents of the Taxillus plastomes are similar to the previous reports [11, 18–20, 41], but with two notable exceptions. The four genes including ycf1, trnH-GUG, trnL-UAG and trnL-UAA, were reported as missing in Li et al. (2017) [19], but following reannotation were found in T. chinensis and T. sutchuenensis. Moreover, clpP was reported as a pseudogene in T. nigrans by Zhao et al. (2019) [20], but an intact clpP sequence was recovered from the transcriptome data, therefore, this loss was not labeled on S1 Fig.
The nucleotide variability values (π) within the 29 Taxillus plastomes (0–6.4%, mean 1.3%) (Fig 3) were higher than the sequence divergence values reported for nine Dalbergia plastomes (0–4.4%, mean 0.86%) [49], 32 Artemisia plastomes (0–0.97%, mean 0.24%) [50], 40 Populus plastomes (0–0.71%, mean 0.36%) [51] and 65 Picea plastomes (mean 0.3%) [52]. The high variability within the Taxillus plastome sequences reflect a general molecular rate acceleration in the genomes of parasitic plants [53]. The fact that ca. 20% of the plastid genes have been lost or pseudolized in Taxillus also supports the concept that plastome functional reduction is higher in heterotrophic than autotrophic plants [14, 46].
Phylogenetic and taxonomic considerations
The phylogenetic analysis of 13 species of Taxillus using complete plastome sequences (Fig 2) resulted in four well-supported clades with less support for the position of the single accession of T. chinensis. This topology showed some minor conflicts with the 67 plastid gene tree (Fig 1) and nrDNA tree (Fig 2). Taken together, we interpreted the full plastome topology in Fig 2 as the best reflection of the species phylogeny and thus used this as the standard for comparing individual plastomic regions to each other (S4 Fig). Conflicts between cytoplasmic organellar and nuclear phylogenies may indicate potential introgressive hybridization events [54], incomplete lineage sorting [55] or differences in dispersal ability of plastid vs. nuclear DNA [56, 57]. Given the minor phenotypic differences among T. rhododendricola, T. tsaii and T. pseudochinensis [58] and that their plastome and rDNA genetic distances are extremely low (0–0.0010) (Fig 5), it is possible that these three taxa are conspecific or a part of a closely related species complex. A broader sampling and further analyses are required to assess genetic diversity among these taxa.
Despite support for five Taxillus clades, the distribution of character states for the four morphological characters examined did not differentiate these clades. As already shown by Danser (1931) and Barlow (1991), fruit features best distinguish Taxillus from Scurrula but have little value differentiating the 13 species of Taxillus included here. It is possible that expanding the number and type of morphological characters (quantitative and qualitative), as well as subjecting the data to multivariate analysis, could result in relationships congruent with the molecular phylogeny, but this remains to be determined.
The genetic data obtained here allows some insight into Taxillus names that were considered synonyms by World Flora Online (WFO). As mentioned above, T. rhododendricola (accessions A and B) were resolved within a clade containing T. tsaii and T. pseudochinensis. WFO syononymized T. rhododendricola with T. nigrans, but that species is genetically more distant from this taxon based on interspecific K2P plastome distances (Fig 5), thus at this time it seems prudent not to combine these taxa. Moreover, the genetic distance between T. nigrans and T. sutchenensis is very low, suggesting these taxa are conspecific.
The ML trees shown in S5 Fig provides additional insights into Taxillus relationships. Using only trnL-trnF sequences, T. thibetensis is weakly supported as part of clade I. The added sequences of T. tsai, T. sutchuenensis, and T. chinensis were placed in conspecific clades, thus their identification was likely accurate. The sequence of T. wiensii (voucher A. Robertson 7364) from coastal Kenya emerged as sister to Taxillus and Scurrula, not as part of any of the former’s clades. Doubts about the placement of this taxon in Taxillus were expressed by Polhill & Wiens (1998) [59] who suggested that it is perhaps more similar to other African genera. Indeed, this view was supported by the analysis of ITS and trnL-trnF [60] where T. wiensii was was not sister to Scurrula but associated with genera from subtribe Tapinanthinae.
The topology of the trnH-psbA tree shows that this region performed poorly compared with other IGSs (S4 Fig) which can likely be attributed to short sequence length (297 bp) that provided few characters. Here accessions identified as T. chinensis and Scurrula chingii occurred in two distinct clades each. Incomplete lineage sorting or misidentification of voucher specimens could also be involved, particularly for common and widespread species such as T. chinensis where this name is used for specimens collected by nonspecialists. Potential misidentification of Taxillus samples are also revealed in S8 Fig. The T. thibetensis accession (MH161427) was embedded within the Scrurrula clade while the accession identified as T. delavayi (MH161427) was sister to the Taxillus/Scurrula clade. However, because voucher information for the two sequence accessions is not available, it is difficult to investigate this issue further. This problem highlights the importance of requiring readily accessible voucher data (preferably photographs) for any organism whose DNA sequences are deposited in public repositories.
Potential barcodes in Taxillus
The challenges in developing broad scale, easily implemented barcodes in plants have been numerous. For plastome genes, rbcL is easy to PCR amplify but has only “modest resolving power” across angiosperms [61]. In contrast, matK provides greater numbers of informative characters but finding PCR priming sites flanking this region that are “universally” conserved is near impossible. This results in workers designing taxon-specific primers, thus defeating the concept of universal barcodes. As shown in this study, better performance is sometimes achieved by concatenating plastome loci. As stated by Fazekas et al. [62], there is a limit to resolution no matter which region or regions are chosen, and this was empirically demonstrated for Crocus by Seberg and Petersen (2009) [63] where number of species identified reached a plateau at ca. 4000 bp. This problem is exacerbated in “taxonomically complex groups where species limits are often very narrowly defined” [61]. Although complete plastid genome sequencing has been proposed [64, 65], cost and other factors currently limit this method compared with PCR based barcoding methods. An intermediate approach has been taken by some workers where a subset of taxa are subjected to complete plastome sequencing and then lineage-specific loci identified and used as DNA barcodes for species level identification and phylogenetics [15, 66–68]. This was the approach taken in the current study.
The comparison of PCGs and IGSs among the 29 Taxillus plastomes indicates that the latter generally display a higher proportion of parsimony informative sites than the former (Fig 4). One might then assume they are more phylogenetically useful; however, given the simple phylogenetic utility scoring system employed herein, the opposite conclusion is reached where scores were on average higher for PCGs, not IGSs. The reasons for this are complex owing to the interplay of a number of variables. These include: 1) taxonomic group, 2) taxon sampling, 3) length of the DNA region, 4) proportion of variable sites, 5) proportion of parsimony informative sites, and 6) the quality of the parsimony informative sites. A brief scan of the plant barcoding literature shows that different regions and combinations have been recommended depending upon what taxonomic rank is required. The rbcL+matK combination may be effective in placing a plant in a family but may not be effective in discriminating among species of different plant groups. In terms of sampling, Yonghua et al. (2010) [69] recommended trnH-psbA as a barcode locus, but only five species of Taxillus were included in their evaluation. Our more robust sampling shows that this marker is unsuitable for interspecific discrimination. As shown in Table 1 and S4 Fig, the lengths of the IGS and PCG regions examined varied from very long (ycf1) to very short (trnH-psbA). From a practical perspective, ycf1 (ca. 5 kbp) is too long for routine PCR amplifications. The proportion of variable and parsimony informative sites within the PCGs and IGSs also varied where the latter were generally higher. But variability alone does not automatically translate into higher phylogenetic utility. For example, trnH-psbA is likely too variable to be effective for species discrimination. Although a site may be scored as parsimony informative, the synapomorphies may be for clades that are not present on the reference tree (here the complete plastome tree), i.e. the variation is homoplastic. The total number of parsimony informative sites (length x proportion) is similarly a nonintuitive measure of phylogenetic utility. Two of the IGSs (rpoC-trnC and accD-psaI) showed higher numbers of parsimony informative sites than trnL-trnF, yet the latter obtained a higher phylogenetic utility score (5) simply because it yielded a monophyletic clade IV.
All five of the examined PCGs received simple phylogenetic utility scores of five, but only accD recovered the overall Taxillus topology. matK also reconstructed the overall phylogeny except for a monophyletic clade IV. Only two of the regions tested received perfect scores of six: rpl14-rps3 and the concatenated rbcL + accD. The former is promising as a barcode marker because its length allows easy PCR amplification with just two internal primers. Other longer regions, such as ycf1 and the intron-containing gene rpoC1 may also provide barcode loci if internal PCR primers were designed. The rbcL + accD combination appears to be the best barcode candidate for resolving species relationships in Taxillus (S4 Fig). Although of similar length and containing similar numbers of parsimony informative sites, the other two PCG combinations (rbcL + matK, accD +matK) did not recover the relationship between T. thelifer and T. matsudai in clade IV, again highlighting the complex interaction of variables.
Conclusions
This study reports plastome organization and phylogenetic analyses of the hemiparasitic mistletoe Taxillus, a genus whose species are difficult to differentiate based on morphological characters. The plastome phylogeny of 13 Taxillus and three Scurrula species showed well-resolved infrageneric relationships and the topology was largely congruent with the relationships based on mitochondrial and nuclear rDNA sequences. Maximum likelihood phylogenetic trees were built for individual intergenic spacer sequences and protein coding genes and these were evaluated based on the complete plastome reference tree. From 12 examined regions/genes, the rpl14-rps3 IGS and concatenated rbcL + accD were found to have the highest phylogenetic utility as measured by their similarity to the reference tree. Future work will involve acquiring sequences from additional samples of Taxillus and Scurrula and testing the utility of the barcodes identified in this study to differentiate species.
Supporting information
S1 Raw gel images. Original gel images of S6 Fig.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s001
(PDF)
S1 Fig. Phylogenetic relationships in Taxillus with putative events of gene loss and pseudogenization plotted on the tree.
The putative events of gene loss and pseudolization are inferred based on the most parsimonious scenario. Arrows indicate gene losses (black) or pseudolization (blue).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s002
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S2 Fig. Comparison of the IR boundaries among 13 Taxillus and other Loranthaceae accessions.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s003
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S3 Fig. Comparison of mitochondrial rDNA MP and ML gene trees for Taxillus species.
MPBS and MLBS values are indicated above the branches.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s004
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S4 Fig. Plastome barcode regions and the tree topologies.
Trees containing 29 Taxillus and three Scurrula sequences generated from separate ML analyses of IGS (A-G) and PCG (H-O) regions. Numbers in parentheses indicate the length of the gene alignment, proportion of parsimony informative sites and score of relationship consistency. The Helixanthera sequences were used as outgroups on all trees. The four major clades of Taxillus as well as Scurrula are shown in different colors. Bootstrap values >70% are labeled above branches.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s005
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S5 Fig. The ML analysis of T. wiensii and other Taxillus using the trnL-trnF region.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s006
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S6 Fig. PCR amplification of target plastid loci for the Taxillus speices.
(A) accD region 1, (B) accD region 2, (C) matK region 1 (D) matK region 2 (E) trnL-trnF. The original raw images are provided as S1 Raw gel images.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s007
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S7 Fig. The matK, accD and trnL-trnF trees with increased sampling.
Trees containing 34 Taxillus and three Scurrula sequences generated from separate ML analyses. Numbers in parentheses indicate the score of relationship consistency. Bootstrap values >70% are labeled above branches.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s008
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S8 Fig. Potential sample misidentification revealed by the phylogeney of Taxillus and other Loranthaceae.
Two potential misidentification accessions are shown in blue. The topology was generated from ML analysis of the 67 plastid gene sequence data (63 PCGs and four rRNAs). ML bootstrap values are shown above the branches and Schoepfia jasminodora was used as outgroup.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s009
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S1 Table. Taxonomic information for 39 potential Taxillus species as well as selected synonyms.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s010
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S2 Table. Sample voucher information and accession number of newly obtained sequences in Genbank.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s011
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S3 Table. List of the published accessions used in the phylogenetic analysis.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s012
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S4 Table. Specific primers designed for PCR amplification in selected Taxillus samples.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s013
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S5 Table. Characteristics of complete plastomes in the Taxillus and Scurrula species.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256345.s014
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Acknowledgments
We are thankful to Mr. Chien-Hsun Yu at the Forestry Bureau of Taiwan and Mr. Ding-Hong Yeh at Taiwan Forestry Research Institute for their kind assistance in plant collections. The authors thank the staff of the herbaria TAIF and HAST that provided materials for this study and the Clinical and Industrial Genomic Application Development Service Center of National Core Facility for Biopharmaceuticals, Taiwan for NGS sequencing.
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