O’Neill and Rana Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2016) 12:14
DOI 10.1186/s13002-016-0086-y
RESEARCH
Open Access
An ethnobotanical analysis of parasitic
plants (Parijibi) in the Nepal Himalaya
Alexander Robert O’Neill1 and Santosh Kumar Rana2*
Abstract
Background: Indigenous biocultural knowledge is a vital part of Nepalese environmental management strategies;
however, much of it may soon be lost given Nepal’s rapidly changing socio-ecological climate. This is particularly
true for knowledge surrounding parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plant species, which are well represented throughout
the Central-Eastern Himalayas but lack a collated record. Our study addresses this disparity by analyzing parasitic and
mycoheterotrophic plant species diversity in Nepal as well as the ethnobotanical knowledge that surrounds them.
Methods: Botanical texts, online databases, and herbarium records were reviewed to create an authoritative
compendium of parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plant species native or naturalized to the Nepal CentralEastern Himalaya. Semi-structured interviews were then conducted with 141 informants to better understand
the biocultural context of these species, emphasizing ethnobotanical uses, in 12 districts of Central-Eastern
Nepal.
Results: Nepal is a hotspot of botanical diversity, housing 15 families and 29 genera of plants that exhibit
parasitic or mycoheterotrophic habit. Over 150 of the known 4500 parasitic plant species (~3 %) and 28 of
the 160 mycoheterotrophic species (~18 %) are native or naturalized to Nepal; 13 of our surveyed parasitic species
are endemic. Of all species documented, approximately 17 % of parasitic and 7 % of mycoheterotrophic plants have
ethnobotanical uses as medicine (41 %), fodder (23 %), food (17 %), ritual objects (11 %), or material (8 %).
Conclusions: Parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plant species exhibit high diversity in the Nepal Central-Eastern
Himalaya and are the fodder for biocultural relationships that may help inform future environmental management
projects in the region.
Keywords: Nepal, Himalaya, Ethnobotany, Parasitic plants
Background
Indigenous biocultural knowledge (IBK) is pillar of environmental management strategies in Nepal, and has
been adopted into policies that attempt to ensure that
indigenous communities live in and benefit from ‘nature’
in a sustainable manner. For over two decades, IBKconscious legislation such as the Forest Act [1], Forest
Regulation Act [2], and National Biodiversity Strategy
[3] as well as international contracts with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Flora and Fauna [4], Ramsar Convention [5], and
United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity [6]
have cultivated cooperative relationships between
* Correspondence: rana.1.santosh@gmail.com
2
Department of Botany, Systematics and Biodiversity, Central Department of
Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu 44618, Nepal
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
Indigenous and local groups and management officials.
Today, over 35 % of the 27.8 million-person population
participates in Nepal’s vibrant community forestry program [7, 8], with over 70 % of the total population directly dependent on wild-forest crops for primary
livelihood, food, and medicine [9]. IBK-conscious polices
have bolstered existing socio-ecological relationships in
Nepal, conserved natural resources, and preserved the
country’s cultural heritage.
However, in spite of recent successes, Nepal’s current
policies face impending challenges from ‘modernizing’
forces and accelerated rates of environmental change
[10]. For instance, population growth, human migration,
and agricultural development have had pernicious ramifications in many sacred and protected zones, including
Chitwan National Park [11–13]. At higher altitudes,
© 2016 O’Neill and Rana. Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
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O’Neill and Rana Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2016) 12:14
overharvest of medicinal plants, driven primarily by
market demands in India and China [14], has disrupted
historical ecosystem dynamics and transformed traditional livelihoods [15, 16]. Beyond these acute sources
of environmental degradation, trends in migrant labor
and education have further stunted rates of IBK transmission, reducing the practicality of existing policies
[17]. Therefore, future conservation strategies must, in
part, preserve IBK that may provide human and ecological communities with greater adaptive capacity to
cope with current and future environmental change.
IBK in the form of Traditional Botanical Knowledge
(TBK) may provide the most viable option for ameliorating current rates of biocultural attrition in Nepal. TBK
incorporates perceptions of natural environments, including elements such as soil, climate, vegetation type,
stages of ecological succession, and land use [15], and
has been celebrated for its ability to support local economies through alternative livelihoods [16]. Nepal ranks
as the 9th most floristically diverse country in Asia.
Despite occupying 0.1 % of earth’s land cover, it houses
over 8000 plant species of which one quarter are believed endemic [10, 18]. Approximately 50 % of these
plants are considered ‘useful’ [19] or ‘ethnobotanical’ in
nature [20] and 25–50 % are expected to have medicinal
properties [19, 21, 22]. Agroforestry and sustainable harvesting practices of medicinal or useful plant species,
including many culinary species such as cardamom, may
provide the economic incentive [23, 24] necessary to
ensure the future health of Nepalese ecosystems [25].
Although there has been a recent surge in TBK research, certain species remain significantly understudied
in Nepal. In particular, the guild of plants known as parasites and mycoheterotrophs, collectively denoted by the
term parijibi in Nepali language, lacks a literature record. Parasites and mycoheterotrophs (PMP) are unique
among plants because they depend upon a host plant for
some or all of their nutrients during a period of their
lifecycle. Globally, there are 20 parasitic plant families
and eight mycoheterotrophic plant families, many of
which do not photosynthesize, and, therefore, have atypical life histories. Moreover, all PMPs have extreme habitat specifications that are inherently bound to forest
community dynamics as well as their host-species
ranges. Together, these requirements have had marked
affects on PMP population densities, abundances, and
potential ranges. PMP are well represented in Nepal;
however, little is known about their exact diversity or
the biocultural knowledge that surrounds them.
To address this disparity, our study aims to create the
first compendium of PMP taxa in Nepal, including their
growth habit, geographic distribution, altitudinal range,
host plants, flowering and fruiting times. We then seek
to create a comprehensive biocultural record of PMPs,
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emphasizing TBK and ethnobotanical uses, to preserve
the biocultural heritage of these species in the CentralEastern Himalayas. Based on fieldwork conducted from
September 2013 through May 2014 and an exhaustive
literature review, we developed a critical interpretation
of PMP use and management.
Methods
Study area
Nepal occupies a 147,181-km2 zone in the CentralEastern Himalayan range (latitude: 26°22 to 30°27 N;
longitude: 80°40 to 88°12 E) between China and India.
It is administratively divided into five development regions, 14 zones, 75 districts, 191 municipalities, and
3276 village development committees (VDC). At the
level of VDC, most communities are further subdivided
along ethnic or caste lines, stratifying IBK/TBK well
beyond the level of administrative boundaries.
Ecologically, the country is classified into three vegetative and seven physiogeographic zones based on altitudinal variations from the lowlands (59 m) to the high
Himalayas (8848 m). However for the purposes of policy,
the Master Forestry Plan for Nepal considers only five
physiogeographic zones based on altitude: Terai (60–
330 m), Siwalks (120–2000 m), Middle Mountain
(2000–3000 m), High Mountains (3000–4000 m) and
High Himal (above 4000 m). Our fieldwork was primarily conducted in the Terai and Middle Mountains of
Central and Eastern Nepal. Our review spans the entire
country (Fig. 1).
Ethnobotanical survey
Before initiating our ethnobotanical investigation, we
collected all available data on the status of PMP in
Nepal. First, we reviewed authoritative botanical texts
[25–30] to glean details on plant distributions, altitudinal ranges, parasitic habit, hosts, flowering times, and
fruiting times. We then cross-referenced these data
against online botanical databases [31–33], and compared these data against herbaria records at Nepal’s
National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories (KATH) [34]
in Godawari, Lalitpur, Tribhuvan National University’s
Central Department of Botany’s Herbarium (TUCH) [35]
located in Kirtipur, Kathmandu, and Tribhuvan University
Post-Graduate Campus’ botanical collections in Biratnagar, Morang (TUCH; 34). Once this process was complete,
we generated range maps and species profiles for each
PMP using ArcGIS version 9.3 to guide our ethnobotanical survey [36] (Additional files 1, 2 and 3). A linear
regression analysis was then performed to understand
how altitudinal gradients correlate with PMP diversity
in Nepal.
Once botanical data were collated, we conducted field
expeditions to evaluate the presence and perceptions of
O’Neill and Rana Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2016) 12:14
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Fig. 1 Map of the Nepal Central Himalaya. Blue: Districts surveyed during our botanical and ethnobotanical fieldwork. Green: Districts where
previous reports detailed the ethnobotanical uses of parasitic plants
PMP in 12 districts based on high levels of reported
biological and cultural diversity: Bara, Chitwan, Ilam,
Jhapa, Kathmandu, Kaski, Lalitpur, Makwanpur, Morang,
Nuwakot, Parbat, and Rautahat Districts (Table 1). Some
larger VDCs visited during this time include: Akumba
(Bara), Biratnagar (Morang), Birtamode (Jhapa), Chitre
(Kaski), Daman (Makwanpur), Mhanegang (Nuwakot),
and Sikles (Kaski). At each site, we surveyed ecosystems
with the help of local guides in order to evaluate the
presence of PMPs at each site. When permitted, we collected samples for use during interviews. Informants
were later presented with freshly pressed or gathered
plant material; in some cases, dried specimens or highresolution, color photographs were used due to harvesting regulations (e.g. Fig. 2).
At each study site, we interviewed both specialist and
non-specialist plant user groups using a Rapid Rural
Appraisal method [37]. Specialist groups reviewed and
consulted during this time include traditional doctors or
healers known variously as amchis, bonpos, dhamis,
jhankris, and khabres as well as management officials,
such as plant quarantine officers and junior technical
agricultural assistants. Non-specialist groups consisted
of people, including farmers, trade workers, and students, for whom plants are not an important component
of their professional life, but who may use them for
other purposes or personal use [16]. We spoke with all
who readily accepted to be interviewed; however, we
took care to involve no more than one informant from
the same household during a single interview session.
Using an informal, semi-structured questionnaire
(Additional file 4), we evaluated biocultural knowledge
in terms of the informant’s ability to identify PMPs and
describe their ethnobotanical uses. They were then asked
if they recognized the plant, if there was a local name
for the plant, if it had any uses, and if they personally
used it [16]. We also asked general questions related to
population abundance, including population distributions, localities, habitat types, and characteristics of
different populations. More specific questions focused
on knowledge of the biology and ecology of PMPs,
including their life histories. Before each interview, prior
informed consent was obtained with the help of districtlevel and village-level community leaders, government
officials, and local guides to collect and disseminate their
IBK (Cornell University IRB: 1311004259).
In total, we interviewed 141people (Male: 89, Female:
52; Average Age: 51 years) from both specialist and nonspecialist groups (Table 1). Informants varied in ethnic
identity, including Brahmin/Chhetri (14 %), Dalit (10 %),
Gurung (27 %), Madeshi/Tharu (17 %), Rai (8 %), and
Tamang (24 %). Approximately 62 % of those interviewed had no formal education, and approximately
72 % engaged in agricultural or pastoral livelihoods. All
informants had lived in their respective village for their
entire lives with the exception of five Gurung men in
Kaski District who served for an average of 20 years each
in the Indian Army or British Army’s Gurkha regiment.
Use accumulation curves were used to determine the
number of interviews conducted for each PMP per site
was sufficient [37].
When permitted, herbaria specimens were also collected and voucher records mounted following standard
procedures [16]. Most specimens were identified to the
species level and were deposited at TUCH in Kirtipur,
Kathmandu. In addition, we took photographs and
O’Neill and Rana Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2016) 12:14
Table 1 Parasitic plant families represented in Nepal. See
Additional file 1 for species-level profiles and Additional file 3
for species range maps
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name, and the following keyword combinations: ethnobiology, ethnobotany, ethnoecology, ethnopharmacology,
ethnobiological, ethnobotanical, ethnoecological, ethnopharmacological, and ethnoveterinary. We also visited
the Tribhuvan University and Cornell-Nepal Study
Program libraries (Kirtipur, Kathmandu) to collect all
available information from unpublished Master’s thesis.
We are aware that our collection criteria, although
exhaustive, did not include all unpublished studies and/
or all local journals or articles not published in English,
Nepali, or Tibetan languages.
Family
Genus
Number of species
Amphorogynaceae
Dufrenoya
2
Balanophoraceae
Balanophora
3
Rhopalocnemis
1
Cervantesiaceae
Pyrularia
1
Convolvulaceae
Cuscuta
4
Loranthaceae
Dendrophthoe
2
Helixanthera
2
Loranthus
2
Results and discussion
Macrosolen
1
Parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plant diversity
Scurrula
4
Taxillus
2
Olax
1
Erythropalum
1
Cansjera
1
Lepionurus
1
Aeginetia
2
Boschniakia
1
Buchnera
2
Centranthera
2
Euphrasia
7
Leptorhabdos
1
Orobanche
6
Pedicularis
71
Phtheirospermum
1
Striga
4
Osyris
2
Thesium
2
Olaceae
Opiliaceae
Orobanchaceae
Santalaceae
Santalum
1
Schoepfiaceae
Schoepfia
1
Viscaceae
Viscum
5
recorded species information, geographical coordinates,
altitude, and habitat type and characteristics on herbaria
records as well as in Additional files 1, 2 and 3. Finally,
R. P. Chaudhary of Tribhuvan University’s RECAST
Division, as well as P. K. Jha and K. K. Shrestha of Tribhuvan University’s Central Department were consulted
regarding species identification and study methods.
We then conducted an exhaustive literature review on
the ethnobotanical uses and biocultural knowledge surrounding parasitic and mycoheterotrphic species to supplement our field research [19, 26, 29, 38–86]. Our
review targeted data on common names, plant uses, and
plant preparations. Our internet surveys were conducted
using the study country’s name (Nepal), plant species’
Nepal is a hotspot for PMP diversity. Botanical records
revealed that 150 of the Earth’s 4500 parasitic plant species (3 %; Table 2) and 28 of the approximately 160
mycoheterotrophic species (18 %; Table 3) are native to
Nepal (Additional files 1 and 2). Many of the records
parasitic species are also considered Nepal endemic,
including: Euphrasia nepalensis, Pedicularis annapurnensis, Pedicularis anserantha, Pedicularis brevicaposa,
Pedicularis chamissonoides, Pedicularis cornigera, Pedicularis mugensis, Pedicularis odontolma, Pedicularis
oxyrhyncha, Pedicularis pseudoregeliana, Pedicularis
tamurensis, Pedicularis terrenoflora, Pedicularis yalungensis. Altitude and number of PMPs are strongly correlated (R2 = 0.81), with higher altitudes exhibiting greater
PMP species richness (Fig. 3). This correlation is primarily driven by parasitic Pedicularis spp. found at high
altitudes.
Our ethnobotanical survey documented the uses of 15
species and varieties of Mistletoe (Loranthaceae: Dendropthoe falcata, D. pentandra, Helixanthera ligustrina,
H. parasitica, Loranthus odoratus, Macrosolen cochinchinensis, Scurrula elata, S. parasitica, S. pulverenta, Taxillus umbellifer, T. vestitus; Viscaceae: Viscum album, V.
articulatum var. articulatum, V. articulatum var. liquidambariclum), four species in the Orobanchaceae (Aeginetia indica, Orobanche aegyptiaca, Striga angustifolia,
S. gesnerioides), three species in the Convolvulaceae
(Cuscuta chinensis, C. europaea var. indica, C. reflexa
var. reflexa), two species in the Balanophoraceae (Balanophora polyandra, Rhopalocnemis phalloides), two
species in the Orchidaceae (Fig. 2), and one species in
the Ericaceae (Monotropa uniflora). We created 42
herbarium records for 21 species of PMP, which were
deposited at TUCH (Additional file 5). Our survey is the
first to record the following plants per district: Balanophora polyandra (Kaski), Cuscuta chinensis (Jhapa), C.
reflexa (Bara, Jhapa, Rautahat); Dendropthoe falcata
(Morang); D. falcata (Rautahat); Helixanthera parasitica (Makwanpur); Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Jhapa);
Rhopalocnemis phalloides (Kaski).
O’Neill and Rana Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2016) 12:14
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O’Neill and Rana Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2016) 12:14
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Fig. 2 Photographic record of some parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plants documented during our study. Panels a–c: Mycoheterotrophic plants
native to Nepal, including Montropa uniflora and two orchid species found in Chitwan National Park known by the Tharu term chikhtaa.
Panels d–f: Growth habit of prumai, or species in the Balanphoraceae (Panel d: Fruiting body of Rhopalocnemis phalloides: Panels e and f:
Female and male inflorescence of Balanophora polyandra, respectively). Panels g–i: Growth habit of Cuscuta chinensis, Viscum album, and Cuscuta
reflexa. Panels j–l: Different parasitic plant fruit consumed by our informants, including Cuscuta and two mistletoe species (Loranthaceae)
Ethnobotanical uses of parasitic and mycoheterotrophic
plants (Parijibi)
Ethnobotanical information for 23 parasitic plant species
distributed among four families and 13 genera were documented during our fieldwork (Table 4). Approximately
82 % of informants surveyed were familiar with all PMP
species native or naturalized to their local environment, and their uses generalized into five categories:
medicine (41 %), fodder (23 %), food (17 %), ritual
objects (11 %), or material (8 %). The largest proportion of
ethnobotanicals emerged from the Loranthaceae and
Convolvulaceae. Our literature review revealed previous
ethnobotanical records for 10 parasitic and two mycoheterotrophic plant species not covered by our survey, with
the majority of species in the Orobanchaceae (Pedicularis
spp.). Pedicularis spp. were primarily utilized by Tibetan
groups living in high-altitude regions of the Central Himalayas, which corresponds with our species diversity data
(Fig. 3). Based on studies in the 29 total districts surveyed,
approximately 17 % of all parasitic plants and 7 % of all
mycoheterotrophic plants native to Nepal have ethnobotanical uses. Our survey provides the first ethnobotanical data on Balanophora polyandra, Cuscuta chinensis,
and Rhopalocnemis phalloides in Nepal.
As medicine, all species were harvested from wild populations and used immediately as fresh material. The entire plant was typically ground to prepare or activate the
medicinal potential of each PMP. However, in some
cases, dried plant material was also pulverized into a
powder (e.g. Santalum album). PMP medicinal formulations generally involved single species, and were orally
administered as soup (jhol) or juice with treated water
Table 2 Fully mycoheterotrophic plant families represented in
Nepal. See Additional file 2 for species-level profiles and
Additional file 3 for species range maps
Family
Genus
Number of species
Burmanniaceae
Burmannia
2
Ericaceae
Monotropa
2
Monotropastrum
1
Gentianaceae
Exacum
1
Orchidaceae
Eulophia
6
Galeola
1
Neottia
2
Cephanlanthera
1
Epipogium
2
(saphaa paani) or oil (tel). A notable exception came
from PMPs used to treat fracture and serious hepatic
diseases. In these cases, plant paste was directly applied
to the site of injury or infection along with other
situation-dependent supplements (refer to ‘Notes’ in
Table 4). Measurements were not made using a standardized method. Often, highly toxic plants, particularly
species in the Balanophoraceae used as vermicide, were
dosed based on weight or bodily constitution. Other
PMPs were prescribed according to patient preference
or tolerability, as many PMP-based herbal medicines are
bitter in taste.
Interviews between age groups revealed that the
ethnobotanical knowledge surrounding many medicinal
PMPs is threatened. All specialist users surveyed in this
study were male, and only men in surveyed regions had
the opportunity to study under traditional healers. However, this tradition is beginning to change in some
Tibetan communities, where women are increasingly
encouraged to study under male amchis. Overall, the age
structure and system of knowledge transmission in many
village communities does not promote the promulgation
of indigenous knowledge systems in younger generations. All informants under the age of 30 sought the help
of allopathic health posts well before traditional medical
practitioners, and they only visited traditional healers
under extraordinary circumstances. This being said, each
our informants under the age of 30 had visited traditional healers as children and were aware of the treatment potential of medicinal plants (jaributi). Based on
our findings, traditional knowledge is a system evolving within Nepal’s rapidly changing socio-ecological
climate, and faces many threats as the state continues
to modernize.
Ethnoecological perceptions of parasitic and
mycoheterotrophic plants
Growth habit was most critical factor considered when
surveyed groups classified PMPs. For example, Gurungidentifying specialist users collectively classified species
in the Balanophoraceae as prumai, meaning ‘mushroomlike plants that emerge from the earth’ (Fig. 2, Panels
d-f ). Prumai is not exclusive to PMPs, and it confers a
medicinal connotation (jaributi) for other organisms
such as fungi, but not Yarsagumba (Ophiocordyceps
sinensis.). To elaborate, prumai grow near or parasitize
trees in sacred landscapes, such as holy forests or
sacred groves, and have thus become associated with
O’Neill and Rana Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2016) 12:14
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Table 3 Details on informants surveyed by our study according to profession, age, and sex/gender in each district surveyed in our
study
District
Types of users
Major profession(s)
Number of informants
Bara
Non-specialist
Agro-pastoralists/Carpenters
11
Chitwan
Sex/Gender
Age range
6 Male
30–85
5 Female
20–55
Specialist
Junior Technical Agricultural Assistants
2
2 Male
25–35
Non-specialized
Eco-tourist Guides/Hotel Owners
7
5 Male
20–40
Specialist
Park Officials
3
3 Male
Non-specialist
Agro-pastoralists/Merchants/Students
19
14 Male
20–80
5 Female
25–50
2 Female
Jhapa
20–35
Specialist Users
Agro-pastoralist/Jhankri
1
1 Male
36
Non-specialist
Agro-pastoralists/Students
45
25 Male
20–70
Specialist
Jhankri/Kabre
7
5 Male
60–85
2 Male
30–40
Makwanpur
Non-specialist Users
Agro-pastoralists/Carpenters/Hotel Owners
14
6 Male
40–70
Morang
Non-specialist
Sugarcane Harvesters
5
5 Male
30–60
Nuwakot
Non-specialist
Agro-pastoralists
17
8 Male
35–65
Kaski
20 Female
Park Officials
8 Female
9 Female
Rautahat
Specialist
Dhami/Bonpo
2
2 Male
45–60
Non-specialist
Agro-pastoralists
8
5 Male
40–70
3 Female
30–50
Fig. 3 Total number of parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plant species found along Nepal’s altitudinal gradient. Parasitic and mycoheterotrophic
species diversity is highly correlated with altitude (R2 = 0.8094), with greater species richness found in high-altitude zones (background image: [88])
O’Neill and Rana Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2016) 12:14
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Table 4 Ethnobotanical uses of parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plants in the Nepal Central Himalaya
Scientific name and voucher Vernacular name(s)b
number(s)a
Aeginetia indica L.
Ankuri MakuriNP,
Kum KumNP, PuksurNP,
Part(s) used
Traditional
use(s)
Reference(s) Notes on ethnobotanical use(s)
Entire Plant
Ritual
Object
Current
Study
The entire plant is placed in shrines or on
alters during Teej festival as a symbol of
Shiva and Parvati.
Medicine
[26, 89]
As medicine, the fresh plant juice is
consumed to reduce fever.
Current
Study
Both jhankris and kabres that R. phalloides
exhibits particularly potent spiritual
properties; however, B. polyandra is also
used for a variety of ritual purposes. As a
ritual object, both plants are collected on
Tuesdays, decorated with turmeric, and
kept inside the house. They may be
combined with Citrus spp. to combat the
evil eye or to ward off spirits. As medicine,
the root of B. polyandra is dipped in
hot/boiling water and then massaged on
the afflicted area. For use as vermicide,
the entire plant is ground into paste and
diluted, and then consumed for a week.
Gaura ParbataNP
Balanophora polyandra
Griffith.
Ek LebirNP
Entire Plant
Ritual
Object
Ek LebirNP
Entire Plant
Ritual
Object
Current
Study
BeseganoNP, KangdolTA
Entire Plant
Ritual
Object
Current
Study
Rana ARO 41
Rhopalocnemis phalloides
Jungh.
Medicine
Rana ARO 42
Boschniakia himalaica
Hook. & Thomson ex Hook.
[29]
Centranthera cochinchinensis GumteoleeNP
var. nepalensis (D. Don) Merr.
Cuscuta chinensis Lam.
AakashjeliNP,Dul-shagTI,
Ghu-ghu-sazinTI
Entire Plant
Fodder
[29]
The entire plant is an alternative fodder.
Entire Plant
Medicine
Current
Study
People do not differentiate the use of
Cuscuta at the level of the taxonomic
classification.
Ritual
Object
[81]
Instead, yellow color is the only essential
factor considered when harvesting Cuscuta
tendrils. As medicine, Cuscuta is used to
treat heptatic diseases, including jaundice.
Fresh tendrils are washed and ground into
paste.
Medicine
Current
Study,
This paste is then mixed with hot water
and consumed as a soup (jhol) for as long
as symptoms persist.
Fodder
[29, 80, 90]
Medicine
Current
Study
Fodder
[91]
Variations on this treatment include boiling
fresh plants and then inhaling the vapor,
or placing Cuscuta tendrils under the
patients’ bed to enhance the recovery
process. This preparation, particularly as
soup, is also used and consumed to treat
asthma, body pains, cough, dandruff,
diarrhea, gastric pain, headache, stomach
disorders, tonsilitis, and urticaria. Some
practitioners expose patients’ bodies to
plant smoke to reduce swelling. Tibetan
groups perscribe this plant to treat
reproductive disorder and to increase
libido or sex drive.
Medicine
Current
Sudy
[19, 29,
38–59, 90]
O’Neill Rana ARO 2
Cuscuta europaea var. indica
Engelm.
AakashbeliNP, Drhul-shuckTI,
Mhasu LaharaNW,
O’Neill Rana ARO 1, 18
SatiNP
NP
TH
Entire Plant
Cuscuta reflexa var.
brachystigma Englem.
Aakashbeli , Aakashlati ,
O’Neill Rana ARO 39
Amar LataNP, AmarvelNP,
BaoraTH
Cuscuta reflexa var. reflexa
Roxb.
AakashbeliNP, AkasbelaNP,
AkasbeliNP, AkasebeliRJ,
O’Neill Rana ARO 9, 10,
12, 13, 19
AkashbelNP, AkashbeliNP,
AkashabeliNP, AakashjeliGU,
Fodder
Akashe LaharaMA, Amar
LataNP/LI, AmarlathiTH,
Ritual
Object
AmaruelaSN, AsparsaSN,
BaoraTH,
The entire plant is placed in shrines or on
alters during various festivals, including
Teej. The festivals and the blooming time
for this species allign.
Entire Plant
Entire Plant
Cuscuta is also invoked during healing
rituals in the Terai as a symbol of Shiva’s
hair. In these locations, fresh tendrils are
also worn as a protective amulet. Our study
also recorded two ethnoveterinary uses in
Tamang communities, including as a
poultice to treat wounds and as a tonic
relieving blood from the urine of bulls
(loombhadi). As fodder, only red tendrils
O’Neill and Rana Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2016) 12:14
Page 9 of 15
Table 4 Ethnobotanical uses of parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plants in the Nepal Central Himalaya (Continued)
Bimfang-gummu-bidongME,
ChimchimponaLI,
are consumed as they are considered to
be less bitter.
Chhoti HadjoriTH, JanailaharoNP,
PiyariTH,
SewanliTH, TaargheyTA
, Ur-lang-duTA, UrlaraTA
Dendrophthoe falcata (L.f.)
Etting.
AinjeruNP, AjeruNP,
BandaNP,RhiniyaMO/NP,
Aerial Parts
Medicine
Current
Study
Practitioners grind leaves into a paste to
treat dermic conditions, including rashes,
pus, and boils.
O’Neill Rana ARO 14
Mandargon BandaSA,
NihiTA
Fruit
Food
[29, 41,
60–69]
Pulverated bark paste is also used as an
abortifacient and to correct menstural
problems. When combined with other
plants, the paste can be used to treat
fractures. Children consume its sweet fruit,
which is also considered to be antiseptic.
Leaves may be combined with Urtica
doica to treat bone fractures.
Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.)
Miquel.
AinjeruNP
Entire Plant
Fodder
Current
Study
The entire plant is an alternative fodder.
Amrita PanktikandaNP,
Hatti PailaNP, MujjatakSN
Entire Plant
Medicine,
Food
[70–73]
As medicine, leaf paste is considered to
be a vermicide. The fruit is considered
edible.
Entire Plant
Medicine,
Food
[69]
As medicine, leaf paste is considered to
be a vermicide. The fruit is considered
edible.
Ritual
Object
[29, 73]
Dried bark powder is burned as a ritual
incense.
As medicine, leaf paste is considered to
be a vermicide. The fruit is considered
edible.
O’Neill Rana ARO 11
Eulophia dabia (D. Don)
Hoch.
Eulophia spectabilis (Dennst.) AmarkandNP
Suresh
Euphrasia himalayica Wettst.
HareNP, MendosanNP
Entire Plant
Helixanthera ligustrina (Wall.)
Danser
AinjheruMA, BhringeGU,
LissoNP
Entire Plant
Medicine
Current
Study
Fruit
Food
[29, 62, 65,
68]
LissoNP
Entire Plant
Fodder
Current
Study
LissoNP
Entire Plant
Fodder
[71]
The entire plant is an alternative fodder.
AinjeruNP, DonglanaisTA, KhikRA
Entire Plant
Medicine,
Material,
Current
Study
Food
[26, 62,
75–77]
Fruit commonly ingested for its laxative
and to treat gastric problems. Masticated
fruit placed is used in Tamang
communities to catch birds, particularly in
winter.
Medicine
Current
Study
Fodder
[62, 78]
Material
Current
Study
Inflorescence
O’Neill Rana ARO 21, 22
Helixanthera parasitica Lour.
[71, 74, 75]
O’Neill Rana ARO 29
Loranthus lambertianus
Schult.
The entire plant is an alternative fodder.
O’Neill Rana ARO 30
Loranthus odoratus Wall.
O’Neill Rana ARO 5
Macrosolen cochinchinensis
(Lour.) Tiegh
AinjeruNP
Entire Plant
O’Neill Rana ARO 7
Orobanche aegyptiaca Pers.
Nil jharNP, ThokaaTH, ThokaraaTH Seed
Rana ARO 43
Orobanche alba Steph. ex
Willd.
As medicine, leaf paste is consumed to
relieve migranes.
Projectile seeds are used as toys in the
Terai.
[29]
TI
Ngoh Droh-shang-tzey ,
JuphalNP
Entire Plant
Root
Medicine
[71]
Pulverized root tissue is applied to burns
and scalding wounds and the whole plant
is used to relieve vertebrae, waist, and/or
leg pain, increase appetite, and heighten
the senses.
O’Neill and Rana Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2016) 12:14
Page 10 of 15
Table 4 Ethnobotanical uses of parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plants in the Nepal Central Himalaya (Continued)
Osyris quadripartita Salzm. ex NundhikiNP
Decne.
Osyris wightiana Wall. ex
Wight
Bakhre KursaniNP, HuriNP,
JhyalalaTA,
Leaf
Medicine
[58, 68]
Leaf poultice is used to reduce inflammation,
and is also valued as a powerful emetic.
Aerial Parts
Medicine
[29, 79–81]
Whole plant paste is used to reduce
inflammation and sprains. Pulverized bark
is used to treat indigestion, young, dried
leaves can be consumed as tea substitute.
Medicine
[90]
Pulverized root tissue is used to relieve
joint pain.
NundhikiNP, NundhikyaNP,
Reskap SangKH
Pedicularis bifida (Buch.-Ham. PennellNW
ex D. Don) Pennell
Food
Root
Pedicularis bicornuta
Klotzsch.
Lukhru KarpoTI
Inflorescence Medicine
[80]
Inflorescence paste is used to treat vaginal
and seminal discharges.
Pedicularis gracilis Wall. ex
Benth subsp. gracilis
PennellNW
Root
Medicine
[90]
Pulverized root tissue is used to relieve
joint pain.
Pedicularis oederi Vahl.
PhulNP
Entire Plant
Fodder
[82]
The entire plant is an alternative fodder.
Pedicularis oliveriana Prain.
Lukhru MhookpoTI
Inflorescence Medicine
[82]
Inflorescence used to reduce inflammation,
ease gastric pain or disorders, and treat
poisoning.
Entire Plant
[29, 83, 84]
Entire plant is consumed to treat cough,
sore throats, hepatitis, and lymphatic
disorders. It is less commonly employed
to treat poisioning, seminal/vaginal
discharges, and disorders associated with
alcoholism.
Pedicularis longiflora Rudolph Lugro SheroGU, SersenlugduNP,
SungNP
subsp. tubiformis
Medicine
(Klotzsch) Tsoong
Lugru SerpoTI
Pedicularis punctata Decne.
Lukhru MugpoTI, MishranSN
Inflorescence Medicine
[82]
Tibetan communities use inflorescence to
treat fever, cancers, and premature graying
of hair.
Pedicularis pyramidata Pall.
ex. Steven
L’ang NahTI
Entire Plant
Medicine
[82]
Entire plant is consumed to combat fluid
retention, including inflammation of bone
and the accumulation of serous fluids.
Pedicularis rhinanthoides
Schrenk
PhulNP
Entire Plant
Medicine
[82]
Entire plant is consumed to treat cough,
sore throat, hepatitis, and lymphatic
disorders. It is less commonly employed
to treat poisioning.
Pedicularis siphonantha D.
Don
Cheelmootee SwaLI,
MuferdudoluLI, PonkiLI
Entire Plant
Medicine
[29, 81, 84]
Entire plant is consumed to treat cough,
sore throat, hepatitis, and lymphatic
disorders. It is less commonly employed
to treat poisioning.
Aerial Parts
Medicine
[67, 70, 82]
Pulverized root tissue is applied to burns
and scalding wounds. Tibetan communities
use this plant to treat inflammation of
lungs, heart, and muscle tissues. Wood oil
is particularly important for treating
inflammation.
Entire plant is ground into a paste and
used to relieve joint pain and hasten
fracture recovery. Fruit is considered to
be edible, and is also used for trapping
birds.
Lugru MarpoTI, Lugru
MugpoTI
Santalum album L.
ChandanNP, SirkhandaaNP,
Sonme SangKH
Tzenthen KarpoTI
Fodder
Scurrula elata (Edgeworth)
Danser
AaingeroNP, AainjeruNP,
AijeruNP, AijheryLI, AinjerNP,
Entire Plant
Medicine,
Fodder,
Current
Study
O’Neill Rana ARO 23, 27, 37
BhringeGU, CheSA, KhikKH,
LissauNP, LissoNP, NaieTA
Fruit
Material
[46, 51, 71,
91]
Scurrula parasitica L.
AinjeruNP, LissoNP
Entire Plant
Fodder
Current
Study
Fruit
Food
[26, 62, 68]
Entire Plant
Medicine
Current
Study
Fruit
Fodder
[62]
Pulverized bark is boiled in water and
consumed to treat heptatic disease. Fruit
is considered edible, and is also used for
trapping birds.
Entire Plant
Fodder
[29]
Young stems are considered edible.
Fruit
Food
O’Neill Rana ARO 6, 24, 35
Scurrula pulverulenta (Wall.)
G. Don
NE/NP
Ainjeru
O’Neill Rana ARO 33
Striga asiatica (L.) Kuntze
CangeNP
GU
, Bhringe
Fruit is considered edible, and the entire
plant is used as fodder. However, some
reports detail that shoots induce vomitting
and loss of appetite in livestock.
O’Neill and Rana Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2016) 12:14
Page 11 of 15
Table 4 Ethnobotanical uses of parasitic and mycoheterotrophic plants in the Nepal Central Himalaya (Continued)
Taxillus vestitus (Wall.) Danser AinjeruNP, LissoNP
Entire Plant
Medicine
Current
Study
Food
[62, 80]
Entire Plant
Fodder
Current
Study
Fruit
Food
[71]
O’Neill Rana ARO 25
Taxillus umbellifer (Schult.)
Danser
NP
NP
Ainjeru , Lisso
O’Neill Rana ARO 26
Viscum album L.
Entire Plant
AinjeruNP/CH, BangTH,
HadchudNP, HadjorTH, HarchuNW,
Medicine
Current
Study
O’Neill Rana ARO 20
HarchulTA, HarchurNP, HajodaNE/
NP
, HarjorGU,
Material
[42, 51, 85,
86]
Fruit
GandhamadiniSN,
JiwantikaSN, LissoNP,
MechoTA,
Fodder
NaiTA,Sano HatchurNP
NP
NP
Viscum articulatum var.
articulatum Burm.
Ainjeru , Hadachur ,
HadjodNP, HarchuNW,
O’Neill Rana ARO 16, 17
BojhaRA, GandhmadiniSN,
KathkomunjgaSA,
Food
Entire Plant
Medicine,
Material,
Current
Study
Food,
Fodder
[47, 69, 71]
Medicine,
Material,
Current
Study
Food,
Fodder
[42]
LissoNP
Viscum articulatum var.
liquidambaricolum Burm. F.
AinjeruNP, HadachurNP,
HadjodNP, HarchuNW,
O’Neill Rana ARO 3
BojhaRA, GandhmadiniSN,
KathkomunjgaSA, LissoNP
Entire Plant
Plant poultice is used to reduce joint
swelling and muscle inflammation.
Fruit is considered edible, and entire plant
is sometimes used as fodder. However,
shoots are believed to induce vomitting
and loss of appetite in livestock.
Viscum species, commonly when bearing
fruit, are used to treat a variety of muscloskeletal disorders and affilctions, including
fractured or dislocated fingers, limbs,
spines. These treatments are considered
most effective when plant is combined
with Cinnamon bark and leaves
(Cinnamomum verum), Nettle root
(Girardinia diversifolia),Pinus roxburghii
leaves, and ground bear bones. These
substances are mixed and ground into a
paste, and are applied to said appendage
for a minimum of two months. Leaves are
also considered useful for treating earaches,
spleen disorders, tetanus, epilepsy, and
blood diseases. As medicine, the fruit
from both plants is considered to be a
favorable laxative, aprhodisiac, and
cardiotonic. Ripe fruit were also used as a
glue when mixed with water, and is
particularly effective for trapping parrots.
Ethnoveterinary uses include treatment for
cattle wounds and bloating. Viscum
articulatum is perceived to confer greater
medicinal action than V. album.
a
Voucher specimen are deposited at TUCH
CH, Chepang; GU, Gurung; KH, Khaling; MA, Magar; MO, Moosahar; NP, Nepali; NW, Newar; RA, Rai; SA, Satar; SN, Sanskrit; TA, Tamang; TI, Tibetan; TH, Tharu
b
spirits and regional cosmologies. Only specialist users,
particularly Gurung kabres, made this distinction. Based
on our fieldwork, we conclude that this is primarily due
to the fact that prumai uses are considered arcane. As a
result, IBK surrounding these plants remains isolated
within specialist circles that do not consistently transmit
this knowledge to younger generations. Other more
common names, such as the Nepali term Ek Li ber, or
‘the one that stands alone’ in old-growth forests, further
confirms the importance of growth habit for the identification and use of species in the Balanophoraceae.
Moreover, growth habit is the only factor considered
when classifying or distinguishing between Cuscuta species. Cuscuta are collectively referred to as Aakash beli
or Pahilo Lahara, which translate as ‘sky net’ or ‘yellow
climber,’ respectively. Because it lacks leaves and exhibits
a vine-like growth habit, this genus does not fit into local
ethonotaxonomic schemes. It stands alone as its own
plant category simply because it has seeds, and is
perceived more generally as a rootless, plant-like mass
that forms on the top of shrubs and trees (e.g. Fig. 2,
Panel i). As medicine, its vein-like tendrils are complemented by its color and bitter taste to cue its medicinal
use for hepatic diseases. Just as hepatic diseases consume the body, turning it yellow and often associated
with bitter bile, Cuscuta growth habit, as complemented
by color and taste, have in many ways become symbolic
in medicine for treating similar syndromes.
Finally, parasitic habit is the primary feature used to
identify many mistletoe species. Mistletoes are collectively termed Ainjeru, meaning ‘scourge’ or plant that
debilitates. Although generally isolated to female informants, a variety of cultural beliefs surround this plant
and are associated with this name. For instance, several
women indicated that burning mistletoe branches leads
to goiter, wart-like symptoms, eye problems, and family
debt. If brought into one’s house, mistletoes could also
lead to hauntings. All symptoms appear to be correlated
O’Neill and Rana Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2016) 12:14
with the perceived biology of the plant, or the bulbous
masses and wart-like protrusions that Ainjeru inflicts
upon its host. An exception to this rule exists for
Phulchoki-area Tamangs, who believe mistletoe-infected
wood confers good luck during gambling [62]. Women
were the primary user groups for mistletoes, as they
were responsible for collecting fodder plants for buffalo
and cows.
Plant utility is a secondary identifier for mistletoe species in the Viscaceae, especially Viscum album and V.
articulatum, and such knowledge remains isolated to
male user groups. Harchor, a Nepali term meaning ‘bone
binder’ or a substance that facilitates the repair of bones,
denotes these plants’ common use for treating fracture.
When describing Harchor’s medicinal use, male informants consistently referenced the plants growth habit
along with its potency. Because they create bulbous
masses on tree branches, making a thinner branch
thicker, they have been appropriated into medicine for
treating fracture. Together with the joint-like nature of
V. articulatum leaves, growth habit appears to be the
primary feature signaling Viscaceae use. Beyond growth
habit, leaf shape, preferred host plant, and flower are
used to further distinguish mistletoe species based on alternative utilities.
In the Terai, Orobanche and Striga species were generally known as variations of the Nepali word jhar, meaning
‘grass’ or ‘grass-like weedy plant’. This lack of differentiation mirrors these plants’ limited IBK, including the species we surveyed: Orobanche aegyptiaca (Fig. 4), Striga
gesneroides, and S. asiatica. Orobanche spp. in some areas
of the central Terai are known as Thokara or Thoka,
meaning swollen rhizome. This again describes these
plants’ parasitic organ know as haustoria, and, inherently,
its growth habit. In other regions, Orobanche spp. are referred to as Bandaar Phul, or monkey flower, due to its
projectile fruit and dispersion method.
Parasitic plants and agricultural development
Based on fieldwork with Plant Quarantine Officers, species in the Orobanchaceae pose a potential threat to
agricultural production in Nepal’s Terai region. In particular, Orobanche and Striga spp. were widely recognized as invasive weeds infecting many crop systems,
including cabbage, maize, millet, potato, and sugarcane
plots (Fig. 4). Qualitatively, their populations were reported to have increased in recent decades, with more
frequent and widespread ranges today than in previous decades. Our informants primarily cited that increased host densities (i.e. spread of agriculture)
facilitated this spread. Similar reports were received
in Kaski’s Community Forest systems regarding
mistletoe species (Loranthaceae). For conservation
purposes, future studies should focus on parasite
Page 12 of 15
Fig. 4 Orobanche aegyptiaca, or bandaarphul (monkey flower),
parasitizing Brassica oleracea in the Western Terai
infestation and the expansion of agricultural development in Nepal, including changes in forest habitat,
fallow lands, and wetland ecosystems. Exacerbated by
climate change, PMP are likely to have range-shifts
into higher altitude fields, threatening native biodiversity and the integrity of historical ecosystems.
Increased PMP population sizes and densities are reported throughout Nepal. Both community foresters and
forest users groups noted marked increases in Loranthaceae populations on Alnus nepalensis, Prunus cornuta,
Pyrularia edulis, Symplocos ramosissima, Berberis spp.,
and Quercus spp. This appears due to the fact that older
trees are less frequently felled, and these trees are most
likely to become parasitized [87, 88]. Community forestry programs have thus ironically preserved Nepalese
forests, however has in turn facilitated increased parasitism. An exception to PMP population increases were
seen in declined Cuscuta populations, as well as its use
as medicine, due to habitat loss and over-exploitation of
Cuscuta host plants for fodder or fuel.
O’Neill and Rana Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2016) 12:14
Conclusions
Ethnobotanical analyses provide insight into how indigenous groups manage and perceive natural resources
based on traditional relationships to the environment.
They can provide crucial details on the population ecology and economic importance of many species, and are
thus crucial when developing environmental management programs in regions such as the central Himalaya.
Our study revealed that many Nepalese people possessed
a great deal of IBK on PMPs, in spite of the fact that
many PMPs are not longer used a medicine. Our study
also depicts the heterogeneity of IBK in Nepal as stratified within and among ethnic groups and age cohorts.
Both species diversity and the traditional knowledge that
surrounds them are important factors to consider when
designing future conservation projects.
Additional files
Additional file 1: Parasitic plant species found in Nepal. Nepal
specific data, including host species are presented. (PDF 128 kb)
Additional file 2: Mycoheterotrophic plant species found in Nepal.
Nepal specific data, including host species are presented. (PDF 52 kb)
Additional file 3: Plant distribution maps of parasitic and
mycoheterotropic plant species found in Nepal. (PDF 106616 kb)
Additional file 4: Semi-structured questionnaire for an
ethnobotanical analysis of parasitic plants in the Nepal Himalaya.
(PDF 154 kb)
Additional file 5: Voucher records of collected parasitic plant
species from Central and Eastern Nepal. (PDF 54 kb)
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
ARO and SKR participated in study design and implementation. ARO
conceived the study and drafted the manuscript. SKR facilitated and
translated interviews and prepared map files. All authors read and
approved the final manuscript.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful for the assistance and advice of the Cornell-Nepal Study
Program, including Banu Oja, David Holmberg, and Dambar Chemjong,
as well as our advisors at Tribhuvan University’s Central Department
of Botany. At Tribhuvan University, we would like to extend particular
thanks to R.P. Chaudhary, P.K. Jha, and K.K. Shrestha for their advice
during study design and implementation. We would also like to thank
Garima Adhikari, Bandana Awasthi, Tanka Gurung, Santosh Lamichane,
Santosh Magar, Hum Kala Rana, Bhogendra Shah, Manoj Suji, and Bikram
Wagle who provided assistance translating and collecting specimen
for identification. Finally, this manuscript would not have been crafted
without the mentorship of Martha Weiss at Georgetown University.
Author details
1
Fulbright-Nehru Research Scholar, G. B. Pant Institute of Himalayan
Environment & Development, Gangtok, East Sikkim, India. 2Department of
Botany, Systematics and Biodiversity, Central Department of Botany,
Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu 44618, Nepal.
Received: 28 July 2015 Accepted: 16 February 2016
Page 13 of 15
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