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Chapter
Aspects of the Biology and
Ethnobotany of Parasitic
Angiosperm Species in Nigeria
Odoligie Imarhiagbe
Abstract
Parasitic plants continue to gain research attention due to their remarkable
lifestyle pattern that clearly cites them as a typical example of a biological oddity.
They have defiled the basic characteristics of plants to become dependent on other
plants for existence. Aside from their unique heterotrophic mode of feeding, host
range and preference, seed germination clues, distribution patterns vary across
different parasitic plants, which has partly ensured their presence in virtually every
plant community. Among the above-listed factors, host range and preference, in
particular, appears to be a major significant factor that shapes their distribution
around the world, enabling certain species to thrive in various microclimates. The
Nigerian environment has heterogeneous vegetation, traversing mangroves, rainforest, savannah vegetation, and its home to host parasitic plant species, including
endemic, natives, and exotic ones. The present chapter gathered and synthesized
available information regarding parasitic plants in Nigeria, particularly their biology and the host species supporting their population. Aside from the devastating
menace some parasitic plants are known for, this report recognizes their ethnobotanical relevance. Thereby stimulating research interest in these highly specialized
plant groups.
Keywords: Ethnobotany, Parasitic plants, host species, Nigeria
1. Introduction
Parasitic plants are an exceptional group of plants that have defiled plants’ basic
characteristics of solely synthesizing their own organic nutrient into dependent
on other plants for survival [1]. Consequently, they have adapted to an association
with a host plant using a physiological bridge known as the haustorium, where
water and organic nutrients are transported [2]. This form of association enables
the host plant to shape the distribution of the parasite. Based on the degree of
host dependence, parasitic plants can exert their impact on an individual or community basis; some parasitic plants, for example, Striga, can severely reduce host
performance, leading to host death, while others like Thonningia sanguinea exert
a mild effect on its host. On a community scale, parasitic plants can significantly
orchestrate changes in community structure, diversity, vegetation cycling, and
zonation by either altering the competitive balance between host and nonhost
plants [3] or necessitating an irregular uptake of host solutes which consequently
1
Parasitic Plants
2
Order
Parasitic Evolutionary Linages
Nature of Parasitism
R
+
2
~18
+
Lauraceae
+
1
~16
+
Zygophyllales
Krameriaceae
+
1
18
Cucurbitales
Apodanthaceae
+
3
23
+
Malpighiales
Rafflesiaceae
+
3
~19
+
2
~11
+
167
~2147
Hydnoraceae
Piperales
Laurales
Malvales
*
Santalales
Cytinaceae
+
Loranthaceae
+
+
Facultative
Holoparasitism
Species
*
S
Hemiparasitism
Genera
*
E
Parasitic
+
+
obligate
Solely
obligate
+
+
+
+
Santalaceae
Saxifragales
Cynomoriaceae
+
1
2
*
Orobanchaceae
+
90
1800
Boraginaceae
+
2
~5
1
145
Lamiales
Boraginales
*
Solanales
Convovolaceae
+
R-root, E-endophyte, S-stem.
*Order having a representative genera in Nigeria.
Compiled from: The Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (APG III, & VI); [5], and Christenhusz, and Byng [6]
Table 1.
Systematic presentation of the diversity of parasitic angiosperm.
+
+
+
+
+
+
Aspects of the Biology and Ethnobotany of Parasitic Angiosperm Species in Nigeria
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98667
affect other trophic level organisms (such as herbivores and pollinators). These
impacts also result in a ripple effect that may extend to the abiotic environment,
including impacts on nutrient cycling, soil water relations, local temperature, and
atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Importantly, such major impacts can occur even
when parasitic plants are minor components of the ecosystem [4].
Despite the uniqueness of plant parasitism, its evolution is polyphyletic [1]. It
is reported to have evolved approximately 12 or 13 in the angiosperm phylogeny
(Table 1). There are approximately 4,500 species in about 280 genera belonging
to 20 families [3]. While some angiosperm families, like Balanophoraceae, consist
entirely of parasitic members, others have only a few representatives, for example,
Lauraceae. Parasitic plants also exist in different life forms, including annuals and
perennials, e.g. (Hydnora spp. and Thonningia sangunea), climbers (e.g., Cassytha),
shrubs (Tapinanthus globiferous), and Tree (e.g., Okoubaka aubrevillei). Parasitic
plants can be characterized based on the presence or absence of photosynthetic
pigments, in which case hemiparasites like Cassytha filiformis, Agelanthus spp.,
Globimetula spp. etc., have the ability to photosynthesize to some extent due to the
presence of chlorophyll or holoparasite like Hydnora spp., Thonningia sanguinea,
Balanophora sp. Cuscuta derived their entire organic nutrient from the host plant
due to chlorophyll deficiency. Parasitic plants could also be categorized as stem
parasites. For example, Cassytha filiformis, Agelanthus spp., Globimetula spp. are
attached to the host stem or root parasites, e.g., Thonningia sanguinea, Hydnora spp.
attached to the host plant’s root.
Parasitic plants are virtually present in all plant communities throughout the
world. Moreover, a positive relationship between nonparasitic and parasitic plants
has been established [4]. By implication, plant-rich ecosystems are also expected
to be rich in parasitic plants. The strategic position of Nigeria in West Africa has
endowed it with wealthy biodiversity, distributed within different ecological zones,
comprising: mangrove, rainforest, montane, and the savanna- Guinea, Sudan,
and Sahel [7]. These different eco-geographical zones support a huge diversity of
parasitic plants, including endemic ones. Even though some parasitic plant species
are important pests of human agriculture and forestry, many are highly valued for
food, wood, and medicinal properties [8]. Therefore, the present chapter aims to
utilize available literature regarding parasitic plants in Nigeria to document their
biology, identified host plants, and their ethnobotanical relevance.
2. Materials and methods
The author obtained information on the biology and ethnobotany of parasitic
plants in Nigeria from various sources, which include; Published materials in the
form of journals from databases, such as Google Scholar, Elsevier, Web of Science,
and SCOPUS, and textbooks, particular checklists, monographs, floras (see references). Herbaria visited include Forest Herbarium Ibadan (FHI) and the Edo State
University Herbarium (EUH). Also, personal communication with experts about
parasitic plants in Nigeria was valuable to completing this report.
3. Distribution of parasitic plants in Nigeria
The strategic position of Nigeria in the tropics just above the equator within
Latitudes 10 0N and 140 N has endowed it with very rich yet heterogeneous
vegetation. The temperature is high and ranges from 25–34°C. The mean annual
rainfall ranges from 500 mm in the north to 2500 mm in the coaster region.
3
Parasitic Plants
The phytogeography of Nigeria could broadly be categorized into two major regions;
the Sudano-Zambezian and the Guineo-Congo [9]. The Northern part of the country
falls under the Sudano-Zambezian region, comprising the Sudanian and Sahelian
domains. The Guineo-Congo region of Nigeria is made up of Guineo domain to which
the west and central part of the country belongs, and the Congo domain has the eastern part of the country. The different domains support various plant species, some
of whom are notable host species to the parasitic plants domiciled in the Nigerian
environment. For the current discourse on the distribution of parasitic plants, the
Nigerian environment will be characterized into two, Northern Nigeria, predominately, savannah, and Southern Nigeria, where the rainforest forest belt is located.
3.1 Northern Nigeria
Northern Nigeria has a Savannah ecoregion, comprising the Guinea savanna
bordering the rainforests, the Sudan savanna, and the Sahel bordering the desert.
The guinea savanna is found in Kaduna, Kwara, Kogi, and Benue states; the Sudan
savanna, in Kano and parts of Borno, Sokoto, Niger, and Bauchi states; and the
Sahel around the Lake Chad. The savanna ecoregion is renowned for a climate
that has a short wet and long dry season. The average monthly temperatures are
around 29°C during the hot season and around 18°C during the cool season. The
total annual rainfall varies greatly from around 500 mm in regions on the semidesert fringes to about 1500 mm in regions bordering the rain forests. The savanna
rainfall is insufficient to support a rich growth of trees but is mostly dominated by
perennial grasses with few tree clumps. In the Guinea savanna, the grasses grow
tall during the rainy season. Trees occur quite close together, especially along the
rain forest fringe. The grass is shorter in the drier Sudan savanna, and the trees are
fewer and more scattered. In the Sahel, which is borders the Sahara desert, the land
is quite bear with clumps of short grass and a few isolated shrubs and trees. During
the dry season, the grass is usually dry and brown, and bush fires are common
occurrences. The underground parts of the grasses survive the dry season and fires
and grow again when the rains come. In terms of the parasitic plant distribution,
the Nigerian Savanna is home to one of the most devastating parasitic genus, Striga.
The species are found on cultivated lands, abandoned farmlands, and waste and
weed-infested sites, depending on the presence of the host crop. Striga astiatica, S.
aspara, S. hermonthica, S. gesnerioides are some of the species found in the savanna
habitat. The basis for their occurrence only in the savanna part of the country is
yet to be fully ascertained. Mohamed et al. [10] reported that the rain forest’s high
rainfall and moisture levels result in a “wet dormancy” of Striga seeds, consequently precluding its occurrence in the zone. Notwithstanding, most host crops,
such as Corn, sorghum, and sugar cane, are cultivated majorly in the savanna part.
Hydnora abyssinica, a root holoparasitic plant, was recently spotted around Nekong,
Wusali ward, Kanke Local Government Area, Plateau State, Nigeria [11]. Notable
members of the Loranthaceae family like Agelanthus dodoneifolius, A. heteromorphus, Globimetula cupulata, Tapinanthus cordifolius, T, globiferous, T. pentagonia, and
T. preussii are attached to trees and shrubs in this zone. Table 2 shows potential
distribution and host species of common parasitic plants of Nigeria
3.2 Southern Nigeria
The Southern part of Nigeria experiences heavy and abundant rainfall due to its
proximity to the equatorial belt. It comprises majorly the rainforest and the swarm
forest that borders the Southern Atlantic Ocean. The rainforest belt occurs in the
regions that lie between the equator and latitude 5o − 10 oN and S. The climate in
4
Family
Potential Distribution
Herbarium
voucher
number
Host species
Literature
Agelanthus brunneus (Engl.) Balle
& Halle
Loranthaceae
SN: Edo, Ogun, Ondo
FHI 16684
Carissa edulis, Crateva religiosa, Diplorhynchus,
Ficus, Funtumia, Gossweilodendron, Ipomaea,
Landolphia heudelotii, Ochna sp, Kigelia africana
[5, 12]
Agelanthus dodoneifolius (DC.)
Polhill &Wiens
Loranthaceae
NN; Kano, Bauchi, Yola
SN: Oyo
FHI 16279
Acacia spp., Afzelia spp., Ceiba, Mimosa, Parkia,
Piliostigma, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Tamarindus sp.
[5, 13]
Agelanthus heteromorphus (A.
Rich.)
Loranthaceae
NN: Sokoto, Zamfara,
Bauchi, Yola
FHI 15893
Anogeissus leiocarpus, Parkia biglobosa, Terminalia
avicenioides
[14]
Alectra sessiliflora var. monticola
Oronbanchaceae
SN: Oyo
FHI 13735
parasitic on some members of the poaceae family
[12]
Alectra sessiliflora var. senegalensis
Oronbanchaceae
NN: Niger, Bauchi SN:
Ondo
FHI 24448
parasitic on some members of the poaceae family
[12]
Alectra vogelii Benth
Oronbanchaceae
NN: Sokoto, Niger, Kogi,
Bauchi, Ilorin
FHI I9265
FHI 25638
Semi parasitic on members of papilionoidae
[12]
Cassytha filiformis L.
Lauraceae
Widespread
EUI 00018
Dodonaea viscosa, Casuarina stricta, Mangifera
indica, Myristica fragrans, Persea americana
[15]
Cuscuta australis R.Br.
Convolulaceae
widespread
FHI 23459
EUH 00015
Cassia marginata. Acacia arabica, Azadirachta
indica
[16]
Englerina gabonensis (Engl.) Balle
Loranthaceae
SN: Ogun, Ondo
FHI 173041
Ficus and Platysepalum chevalieri
[17]
Globimetula cupulata (DC.) Van
Tiegh
Loranthaceae
widespread
EUH 00019
Dacryodes edulis, Ceiba pendandra, Morinda
germinata, Neocarya macrophylla
[18]
Globimetula braunii (Engl.) Van
Tiegh
Loranthaceae
SN: Ogun, Anambra,
Lagos, Cross River
FHI 6679
Ceiba pendandra
[18]
Helixanthera mannii (Oliv.)
Danser
Loranthaceae
SN: Cross River
FHI 33216
Coffea, Citrus, Ficus
[5, 13]
Helixanthera spathulata Wiens
& Polh.
Loranthaceae
SN: Cross River
Coffea, Citrus, Ficus
[12]
Hydnora abyssinica A. Br.
Hydnoraceae
NN: Plateau
Acacia hockii De Wild, Piliostigma thonningii
(Schum.) Milne-Redh., and Tamarindus indica L.
[19]
Aspects of the Biology and Ethnobotany of Parasitic Angiosperm Species in Nigeria
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98667
5
Species
Family
Potential Distribution
Herbarium
voucher
number
Host species
Literature
Okoubaka aubrevillei Pellegr. &
Normand.
Santalaceae
SN: Edo, Cross River and
Osun
EUH 00011
Companion tree plant species
[20, 21]
Phragmanthera capitata (Spreng.)
Balle
Loranthaceae
NN: Niger
SS: Oyo, Cross River.
FHI 3420
Alchornea, Anacardium occidentale, Annona
senegalensis, Bauhinia, Citrus aurantium, Coffea,
Cola nitida,
[12, 13]
Phragmanthera kamerunensis
(Engl.) Balle
Loranthaceae
NN: Niger, Kogi SN:
Cross River;
Milicia excelsa and Isoberlinia doka.
[22]
Phragmanthera nigritana (Hook.
f. ex Benth.) Balle.
Loranthaceae
NN: Kogi, Adamawa
SN: Ogun, Cross River;
Morinda lucida
[23]
Phragmanthera talbotiorum
(Sprague) Balle
Loranthaceae
SN: Akwa Ibom, Cross
River;
Morinda lucida
[12, 24]
Striga asiatica (Linn.) O. Ktze
Oronbanchaceae
NN: Niger, Kaduna,
Adamawa
FHI 24389
Corn, sorghum, and sugar cane
[12]
Striga aspara (Willd.) Benth
Oronbanchaceae
NN: widespread
FHI 4557
rice, wild grasses
[5, 25]
Striga gesneriodes (Willd.) Vatke
Oronbanchaceae
NN: Sokoto, Adamawa
Cowpea
[5, 25]
Striga hermonthica (Del.) Benth
Oronbanchaceae
NN: widespread
EUH 00022
Sorghum roots
[5, 25]
Tapinanthus bangwensis (Danser.
Loranthaceae
SN: widespread
EUH 00029
Cola nitida, Coffea liberica, Terminalia catappa
and Theobroma cacao.
[5, 26]
Tapinanthus cordifolius
Loranthaceae
NN: widespread
FHI 24389
Sysygium eucalyptoides; Psidium guajava; Citrus
auranthifolia; Citrus medica
[12]
Tapinanthus globiferous (A. Rich.)
Tiegh.
Loranthaceae
NN: Zamfara, Kano,
Bornu
FHI 15683
Acacia nilotica, Adansonia, Bauhinia rufescens,
Butyrospermum parkii
[5, 13]
Tapinanthus pentagonia (DC.)
Van Tiegh
Loranthaceae
SN: Oyo
FHI 3442
Acacia, Butyrospermum, Ceiba, Ficus, Gardenia,
Landolphia heudelotii
[12, 13]
Tapinanthus preussii (Engl.)
Tiegh.
Loranthaceae
SN: widespread
EUH 00101
Parkia biglobosa
[5, 13]
Parasitic Plants
6
Species
Family
Potential Distribution
Herbarium
voucher
number
Host species
Literature
Thonningia sanguinea (Vahl.)
Balanophoraceae
SN: Edo, Cross River,
Oyo, Ondo, Ogun,
Bayelsa
EUH 00055
Guarea cedrata Lophira alata, Musanga
cecropioides, Myrianthus arboreus and
Ricinodendron heudelotii Hevea brasiliensis and
Theobroma cacao
[27, 28]
Viscum congolense De Wild.
Loranthaceae
SN: Akwa Ibom, Cross
River
EUH 00121
Albizia, Combretodendron africanum, Hevea
Funtumia elastica, Polyalthia
[27]
Viscum decurrens (Engl.) Bak. &
Sprague
Loranthaceae
Rain forest: Akwa Ibom,
Cross River
EUH 00122
Symphonia globulifera
[2, 27]
NN, Northern Nigeria; SN, Southern Nigeria; FHI, Forest herbarium Ibadan; EUH, Edo university herbarium.
Table 2.
Potential distribution and host species of common parasitic plants of Nigeria.
Aspects of the Biology and Ethnobotany of Parasitic Angiosperm Species in Nigeria
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98667
7
Species
Parasitic Plants
the tropical rainforest region is hot and wet throughout the year. The mean annual
temperature is 27°C while the mean total annual rainfall is 2000 mm. The rainforest
is characterized by dense and stratified vegetation, comprising various broad-leaved
tree species sandwiched by lianas and herbaceous climbers. The rain forest covers
Oyo, Edo, Delta, Imo, Cross River, Ogun, Ondo, and Rivers state, while the swarm
forest is situated across the Niger Delta region. Parasitic plants are very much represented in the Nigerian rainforest. The largest parasitic tree, Okoubaka aubrevillei, is
found here. It is believed to parasitize neighboring trees as an adaptive mechanism
for creating light spaces in the normally thick rain forest environment. A recent
report indicates that the parasitic tree is currently facing a decline in its Population
due to forest degradation. Consequently, further isolating the few remnants stands
in some forest areas of Edo, Cross River, and Osun States. Another interesting parasitic species found in the Nigerian rain forest is the ground-dwelling, herbaceous
plant- Thonningia sanguinea, commonly refer to as ‘ground pineapple’ because they
bear morphological similarities. The plant shows a special preference for native host
trees such as Guarea cedrata, Lophira alata Musanga cecropioides Myrianthus arboreus,
and Ricinodendron heudelotii, and few exotics like Hevea brasiliensis and Theobroma
cacao. It is mostly found growing along forest trails, indicating its preference for
disturbed parts of the forest environment. Notable members of the Loranthaceae
family like Agelanthus brunneus, A. dodoneifolius, Englerina gabonensis, Globimetula
braunii, Helixanthera mannii, Phragmanthera capitata, P. kamerunensis, P. talbotiorum, and Tapinanthus bangwensis are present in the luxuriant vegetation of the rain
forest, attached on the branches of host trees. Other stem parasites like Cassytha
filiformis and Cuscuta australis have a widespread distribution spanning rainforest
and the savanna. Parasitic members of the Orobanchaceae scarcely sighted, only
represented in this zone by Alectra sessiliflora var. monticola. Table 2 shows potential
distribution and host species of common parasitic plants of Nigeria.
4. Systematic presentation of parasitic angiosperm in Nigeria
4.1 PIPERALES: hydnora abyssinica (Hydnoraceae)
Members of the genus Hydnora are subterranean, holoparasitic, and lack leaves
or scales [19]. Several species of Hydnora have been recognized H. africana Thunb.,
H. esculenta Jum. & H. Perrier, H. johannis Becc. and H. triceps Drege & Meyer as distinct species; however, The family-Hydnoraceae is represented in Nigeria by Hydnora
abyssinica A. Braun [11]. The first and only report of its existence was around
Nekong, Wusali ward, a lowland area in the Sudan-savanna zone in Kanke Local
Government Area, Plateau State, Nigeria [11]. Hydnora abyssinica is a perennial herb
composed entirely of roots with extremely reduced vegetative morphology. It only
emerges above ground when fruiting or flowering. H. abyssinica grows in a semiarid
environment. The adaptation for such an environment might be related to the fact
that water availability affects flower growth, including perianth splitting [29]. The
flowers of H. abyssinica are protogynous; however, both cross and self-pollination
can occur. Carrion flies and dermestid beetles carry out pollination. Generally,
Hydnora species use a system similar to the pitcher traps of Carnivorous plants by
trapping insects that fall into the flower tube, ensuring they do not escape [25].
4.2 LAURALES: cassytha filiformis (Lauraceae)
The genus Cassytha consists of about 17 species globally, with Cassytha filiformis
being the predominant species in Nigeria. Cassytha filiformis is a perennial, leafless
8
Aspects of the Biology and Ethnobotany of Parasitic Angiosperm Species in Nigeria
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98667
twining plant with a stem turning clockwise around the support plant [30]. It is
less selective in terms of the choice of the host; hence any plant may be used as a
host [29]. Stems are green to orange, filiform, and glabrous. Leaves are reduced to
minute scales, ca. 1 mm long, easiest seen near tips of stems. Flowers are sessile
and few in spicate inflorescences 1(−2) cm long, each subtended by an ovate bract
and two ovate bracteoles. The inflorescence is a short raceme or spike. C. filiformis
produces false fruits enclosed in the accrescent floral tube; dried floral parts persist
in the fruiting stage. Information regarding the pollination biology in Cassytha
filiformis is scanty. However, the floral characteristics point to wind pollination,
while on the other, the presence of gland in the flowers point to insect pollination.
Birds disperse fruits. Bush fire has been reported to promote the germination of
Cassytha seeds [29].
4.3 SANTALALES: nigerian loranthaceae
Loranthaceae is the largest family in Santalales with about 73 genera and over
900 species [29]. It has a wide distribution particularly in the southern hemisphere,
including both subtropical and tropical areas. Members of Loranthaceae have
mostly stemmed parasites, with exception of a few root parasites. They possess
both primary and secondary haustoria. Loranthaceae leaves are usually evergreen,
leathery, and simple with smooth edges but variable forms, from broad flat leaves to
cylindrical succulent leaves. Flowers are nearly always bisexual, with 4–7 perianth
members who normally are of the same color. Stamens occur in the same number
as the perianth parts, but there is only one pistil. Insects and birds, especially
sunbirds pollinate flowers. The fruits are berry-like, single-seeded and of different
color depending on species. Birds are the main disperser. The family- Loranthaceae
is represented in Nigeria by Agelanthus brunneus (Engl.) Balle & Halle, Agelanthus
dodoneifolius, Englerina gabonensis (Engl.) Balle, Globimetula cupulata (DC.) Van
Tiegh, Globimetula oreophila (Oliv.) Danser, Helixanthera mannii (Oliv.) Danser,
Helixanthera spathulata Wiens & Polh. Phragmanthera capitata (Spreng.) Balle,
Phragmanthera kamerunensis (Engl.) Balle, Phragmanthera nigritana (Hook. f. ex
Benth.) Balle, Phragmanthera talbotiorum (Sprague) Balle, Tapinanthus bangwensis (Engk. & K. Krause) Danser, Tapinanthus cordifolius, Tapinanthus globiferous
(A. Rich.) Tiegh, Tapinanthus pentagonia (DC.)Van Tiegh, and Tapinanthus
preussii (Figure 1). Generally, these representative species are distributed into
two main groups distinguished by the flower bracts, the Tapinanthoid and the
Taxilloid group.
The Tapinanthoid group has simple to branched hairs. There are three flower
types in this group. Some possess relatively small, non-explosive flowers, which are
mostly adapted to pollination by insects. They are considered primitive for example
is Helixanthera mannii, H. spathulata. Others like Agelanthus and Englerina have
explosive flowers, and their corolla is vented. Corolla venting occurs when there is
a split in the corolla and the number of splits corresponding to the number of fused
petals below the corolla tip. Agelanthus is the most species-rich Loranthaceae in
Africa. It flowers all year-round depending on the host species and the location, usually much more abundant during the rainy period. Englerina is mostly shrubs up to
2 m in size. The flowers are clustered in pedunculate umbels and often standing erect
from horizontal branches. The corolla tube is relatively short, adapted to pollination by short-beaked birds. The opening mechanism of the flower with the obvious
vents serves as signals to the pollinators that the bud is mature. Tapinanthus and
Globimetula. are non-vented but explosive. The flowers explode without opening
first by splits. Tapinanthus is a common genus in Nigeria. They are characteristically
known to have a swollen tip of the corolla in the bud stage. The tip often has a color
9
Parasitic Plants
Figure 1.
Some common parasitic plants of Nigeria (A) male inflorescence of Thonningia sanguinea, (B) flowers
of Globimetula braunnii (C) and (D) Tapinanthus globiferus Syn. Agelanthus dodoneifolius,
(E) Tapinanthus dodoneifolius, (F) Cuscuta camprestris, (G) Striga gesnerioides, (H) Striga asiatica,
(I) fruits of Tapinanthus sp., (J) leaves and inflorescence of Tapinanthus bangwensis, (K) Hydnora
infloresence, (L) a sapling of Okoubaka aubrevillei.
10
Aspects of the Biology and Ethnobotany of Parasitic Angiosperm Species in Nigeria
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98667
different from the rest of the corolla and becomes darker as the bud matures. Such
a dark color also serves as a signal to the pollinators that the bud is mature. It flowers all year-round depending on the host species and the location, for usually much
more abundant during the dry period. Globimetula species are known to have just a
primary haustorium. The buds have a prominent swelling at the tip like Tapinanthus.
The Taxilloid group has stellate hairs and has a flower that is both explosive and
vented. Example Phragmanthera, which is the largest genus in this group. It has a
large single primary haustorium. Several species of this genus are considered pests
in plantations.
4.4 SANTALALES: okoubaka aubrevillei (Santalaceae)
Okoubaka aubrevillei is a rare tree endemic to West Africa (Figure 1). It is the largest parasitic plant and also produces the largest seeds known for any hemiparasite. It
is a monoecious, deciduous tree that grows up to 40 m high [31]. The tree is thought
to be useful for various folk medicinal purposes by different ethnic groups in all of
its native ranges [21]. Okoubaka aubrevillei is perhaps one of the most controversial
plants in Africa in terms of taxonomy and ethnobotanical information. It is believed
that no tree grows within 80 feet of a 60 feet Okoubaka tree, except for Myrianthus
arborea, Musanga cecropoides, Cola attiensis [31]. Its presence has been confirmed in
three state locations in Nigeria: Edo, Cross River, and Osun States [32]. As exercised
by Okoubaka aubrevillei, parasitism might be for nutritional purposes and as a means
of competition for light since it dwells only in a rainforest habitat.
The leaf blade is ovate to oblong, simple and entire in shape, arranged in an
alternate to almost opposite. Flowers are green in color and arranged on spines
around older branches. Flowers are green in color. Unisexual flowers are present,
with the female flowers slightly larger than male flowers [33]. The flowers develop
into hard, yellow-colored ellipsoid drupes containing a single large seed that weighs
up to 100 g. The tree is monoecious. Hence, it is expected that the plant undergoes
self-fertilization (allautogamy), leading to genetic stability. Although little is
known about the pollination biology, the pollination type is likely either by ants
(myrmecophily) or bats (cheiropterophily) due to the small greenish flowers that
preclude its chances of being pollinated by birds [32]. Seeds are speculated to be
dispersed by large forest animals such as elephants.
4.5 SANTALALES: viscum spp. (Santalaceae)
Viscum congolense De Wild. And Viscum decurrens (Engl.) Bak. & Sprague
are two representative species of the family in Nigeria. Reports on these species,
particularly, Viscum decurrens are scanty. V. congolense is a dioecious, globose shrub
that grows up to 50 cm tall and is found in humid forests, secondary forests, and
plantation forests. Leaves are variable, elliptic-oblong in shape. The fruits are small,
smooth and greenish-white in color [12].
4.6 Santalales: thonningia sanguinea (Balanophoraceae)
Thonningia sanguinea Vahl (Balanophoraceae) is a monotypic, rare, cryptic
obligate holoparasitic plant endemic to tropical Africa (Figure 1). Its distribution
is restricted to the forest environment, where it parasitizes forest trees [27, 28].
Thonningia sanguinea is a fleshy dioecious herb growing from an underground
tuber. It is parasitic on other plants via its tuber. The branching yellow tuber extends
horizontally up to 10 or 15 centimeters through the soil. It forms bulb-like swellings
at the points where it attaches to the roots of its host plants which could either be
11
Parasitic Plants
exotic or native species. These swellings, or galls, can reach over 18 centimeters wide
[34]. The stem is coated with spirals of scale-like leaves. The leaves lack chlorophyll,
as the plant obtains nutrients from hosts and does not need to photosynthesize. The
flowering stem emerges from the ground to produce a bright red or pink inflorescence containing male and female flowers. The crowded flower heads are covered
in scales. The inflorescence is up to 15 to 20 centimeters long [34]. Studies on its
reproductive phenology suggest that T. sanguinea flowers all year round. The ant
Technomyrmex species are the most common floral visitors, and it is hypothesized to
be the pollinating agent [27, 28].
4.7 LAMIALES: alectra spp. (Orobanchaceae)
Alectra is also known as the yellow witchweed. Representative species in Nigeria
include Alectra sessiliflora var. monticola, Alectra sessiliflora var. senegalensis, and
Alectra vogelii Benth. Generally, Alectra grows erect, emerging from a small bulb
(haustorium) attached to the root of the root plant. The leaves are lanceolate,
simple, subsessile, and arranged in an opposite or alternate pattern. Flowers are
borne by a short peduncle and yellow in color. The fruit is a globular dehiscent
capsule containing many seeds. At maturity, it opens in 2 valves. The seeds are tiny
and ovoid. Seeds are dispersed mainly by wind. Alectra species, particularly Alectra
sessiliflora var. senegalensis, are a serious threat to agriculture since they can use
members of Papilionoideae such as cowpeas, peanuts, soybeans and other legumes
as host.
4.8 Lamiales: striga spp. (Orobanchaceae)
Striga, often refer to as ‘witchweed’ because several species, despite their beauty,
seem to perform “evil magic” like a witch. Striga is most common in semi-dry
vegetation. Striga species are annuals or rarely perennials. Representative species in
Nigeria include; Striga asiatica (Linn.) O. Ktze, Striga aspera (Willd.) Benth, Striga
gesnerioides (Willd.) Vatke, Striga hermonthica (Del.) Benth.
The life-cycle of Striga spp. is quite complex [48]. It begins a long period of seed
dormancy that could persist for up to after which the seeds then need sufficiently
warm and humid conditions for one to two weeks to enter into a condition in which
they can germinate (pre-conditioning). Subsequently, they need host-derived
signals that stimulate germination [25]. After germination, a special organ, called
the haustorium, through which nutrient materials are siphoned from the host [25].
The above-ground part of the parasite emerges after haustorium development and
proper attachment to the host. This is accompanied by flower bloom, pollination,
and subsequently shedding the seeds as the capsules ripen. Pollination is by insects,
probably butterflies; the seeds are tiny, produced in vast numbers and dispersed
mainly by wind, but also stick with mud to hoofed and clover-trotted mammals [17].
4.9 SOLANALES: cuscuta australis R.Br. (Convulvulaceae)
Cuscuta, commonly referred to as dodder, is the only parasitic genus in
Convolvulaceae, belonging to the order, Solanales. The species is represented in Nigeria
by Cuscuta australis. Cuscuta spp. bear a close similarity to Cassytha in appearance.
However, some notable differences include that most Cuscuta spp. are annuals, unlike
Cassytha, a perennial herb. Also, while Cassytha is a hemiparasite, Cuscuta is holoparasitic. Also, Cuscuta is a more advanced parasite than Cassytha due to the presence of a
direct phloem contact [16].
12
Aspects of the Biology and Ethnobotany of Parasitic Angiosperm Species in Nigeria
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98667
Cuscuta australis possess tiny, stalk or sessile flowers that are clustered in dense
heads. Flowers are pollinated by insects; however, birds are responsible for seed
dispersal [29].
5. Ethnobotanical relevance of parasitic plants
The term Ethnobotany was first used by Harshberger [35] to denote the study
of plants used by primitive aboriginal people subsequently; different workers have
defined the subject, greatly enlarged the scope and accepted it as an interdisciplinary science for a holistic approach to man–plant relationship, hence different
definitions of the concept of ethnobotany exist. Allem, [36] defined the concept as
the biological, economic and cultural inter-relationship between people and plants
in the environment where they exist. Schultes and Raffauf [37] broadly defined the
subject as human evaluation and manipulation of plant materials, substances and
phenomena in societies. Jain [38] related it to the study of how people make use of
plants. According to Pushpangadan and Kumar [39], it is the entire realm of useful
relationship between plant and humans. These definitions point out a relationship
between people of a given community or society, the environment and the plant
diversity in that particular community.
Ethnobotany has now been recognized as an integral part of indigenous/local
knowledge of a particular society. Thus, different societies or communities have their
own knowledge about plants and their uses. Indigenous knowledge represents an
immense valuable database that provides humanity with an insight into how numerous communities have interacted with the changing environment, providing local
solutions for local problems and suitable ways for coping with challenges posed by
specific conditions. According to Warren and Cashman [40], ethnobotanical knowledge is how most communities survived for centuries by adapting themselves to their
environment, using their intrinsic knowledge of associated resource management.
Parasitic plants are keystone species in plant communities, exhibiting a unique
and important ecological role [3]. They are common in many natural and seminatural ecosystems, from tropical rain forests to the savanna. Although some
parasitic plant species are important pests of human agriculture and forestry, many
are highly valued for food and wood as well as for their medicinal and esthetic
properties [8].
The study and management of parasites have historically focused on the
control, and even elimination, of parasite populations, for example, researchers
have intensified efforts to eradicate several mistletoe species, Cuscuta: Striga, and
broomrapes which attack food crops [35]. Despite this ecological and economic
importance, parasitic plants have often been overlooked and excluded from most
ethnobotanical checklist and flora assessment surveys [8]. Literature survey
reveals that only in few instances have parasitic plants been recognized for their
ethnobotanical value [41, 42].
The importance of indigenous knowledge is overwhelming especially with
regard to parasitic plants. Aiyeloja and Bello [43] valued it as the sum of the experience that forms the basis for decision making for familiar and unfamiliar problems
and challenges in a local community. The overall ethnobotanical uses of parasitic
plants are quite high. However, the traditional knowledge of these plants have
been widely threatened by current trends of economic globalization that promote
intensive agriculture, industrialization, and the migration of rural populations to
urban areas. Consequently, it is crucial to record this fast-disappearing knowledge
before it is lost along with the present generation of elderly persons. Table 3 shows
the ehnobotanical relevance of parasitic plants.
13
Parasitic Plants
14
Species
Geographical location; plant parts use; ethno-uses
References
Agelanthus
dodoneifolius (DC.)
Polhill & wiens
In West Africa, the leaves of Agelanthus dodoneifolius are used
by some ethnic groups for headache relief. The leaves and fruit
are aphrodisiacs.
[14]
Alectra sessiliflora var.
monticola (Engl.)
Melch
In Western Kenya, the flowers and leaves of Alectra sessiliflora
are used to remedy toothache, diarrhea, kwashiorkor, and oral
thrush in children, gastrointestinal and sexually transmitted
infections. It is also used to hasten childbirth and to treat scars
caused by leprosy.
[44, 45]
Cassytha filiformis L.
Several tribes use the whole plant of Cassytha filiformis in
Nigeria in the treatment of cancers and gonorrhea. Also, to ease
labour pains, quicken labour time, and lubricate the birth canal
during childbirth.
[46]
Cuscuta campestris
Yunck.
In Saudi Arabia, the whole plant of Cuscuta campestris is used as
a purgative and also during constipation.
[47]
Englerina gabonensis
(Engl.) Balle
In Libreville (Gabon), the leaves of Englerina gabonensis are
used to cure rheumatism. It is also used to heal fractures and
scabies, treat mental illness, epilepsy and in performing magic
(protection against robbery)
[17]
Globimetula cupulata
(DC.) Van Tiegh
In the Southeast part of Nigeria, the Leaves and fruits of
Globimetula cupulata are used in the management of high
blood pressure and diabetes mellitus
[48, 49]
Helixanthera mannii
(Oliv.) Danser
In West Africa, Helixanthera mannii is used for religious
ceremonies, superstitions, magic purposes too.
[46]
Hydnora abyssica A. Br.
In Southern Mozambique, the inflorescence of Hydnora abyssica
is used to treat diarrhorea, piles, acne, menstrual problems,
stomach cramps, and to stop bleeding
[50]
Okoubaka aubrevillei
Pellegr. & Normand.
In Southern Nigeria, the bark and the seeds of Okoubaka
aubrevillei are used to treat convulsion, for rituals and
prevention of miscarriage and as an anaphrodisiac. The bark
and leaves are used for reducing swollen testicles (orchitis).
The branch is tied on a broken limb along with other plants for
the healing of the limbs. Use of the bark infusion or maceration
in water to treat skin problems (including those caused by
syphilis and leprosy). In contrast, external applications of bark
preparations are used to counteract poisoning.
[32, 46, 51]
Phragmanthera
capitata (Spreng.)
Balle
In Logbessou, in the North of Douala (Cameroon), the
leaves and branches of Phragmanthera capitata are used for
treatments of Nerves attacks, convulsions, chronic muscular
pains, diabetes, respiratory dysfunctions, rheumatism related
pains, epilepsy, dizziness, uterine hemorrhage, hypertension,
hypotension, back pains, kidney pains, menopause,
headache, heart palpitations, general purifications, irregular
menstruations and nose bleeding.
[22, 24]
Phragmanthera
kamerunensis (Engl.)
Balle
In southwest Nigeria, the leaves of Phragmanthera kamerunensis
is used for the treatment of gastric ulcer.
[23]
Striga asiatica L.
In South Africa, the stem and leaves of Striga asiatica are used
for treating hemorrhoids, or smoldering smoke is used to kill
off warts, or charred remains are used as a dressing on wounds
to dry or rubbed on legs for oedema.
[52]
Striga hermonthica
(Del.) Benth
In Northern Nigeria, the stem and leaves are used to treat
dermatosis, leprosy ulcer, pneumonia and jaundice
[53]
Tapinanthus
bangwensis (Engk. &
K. Krause) Danser.
Southwest Nigeria leaves; the whole plant is used to treat
circulatory and respiratory disease problems, malaria, diabetes,
hypertension and sterility in cows.
[54, 55]
Aspects of the Biology and Ethnobotany of Parasitic Angiosperm Species in Nigeria
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98667
Species
Geographical location; plant parts use; ethno-uses
References
Thonningia sanguinea
(Vahl.)
In Southern Nigeria, the whole plant is used with other
materials against anemia, asthma, diarrhea, infant illness,
rheumatism, skin infection, sore throat, stomach upset. It is
also valuable as (a) an aphrodisiac
[8]
Table 3.
Ethnobotanical relevance of parasitic plants.
6. Conclusion
Parasitic plants play a vital role in plant communities, and their diversity is quite
huge, with various species inhabiting the different ecosystems in Nigeria. The study
and management of parasites have historically focused on controlling and even
eliminating parasite populations. Although some parasitic plant species are important pests of human agriculture and forestry, many are highly valued for food and
wood and their medicinal properties. The current chapter provides an update on the
various potential uses of parasitic plants in Nigeria from an ethnobotanical perspective. Therefore it is important to look beyond just their economic implications and
approach the conservation of parasitic plants holistically. Next time you walk along
nature trails in the forest, look out for some stem parasites on the branches of trees
and root parasites at the base of host plants.
Author details
Odoligie Imarhiagbe
Department of Biological Science, Edo State University Uzairue, Edo State, Nigeria
*Address all correspondence to: imarhiagbe.odoligie@edouniversity.edu.ng
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.
15
Parasitic Plants
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